AP Psychology: Cognitive Processes and Perception

Cognition

Mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information.

Sensation

The bottom-up detection of stimuli.

Bottom-Up Processing

Analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.

Top-Down Processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes.

Perceptual Set

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

Motivation (Perception)

High motivation can lower the threshold for perceiving a specific stimulus.

Emotion (Perception)

Distinct emotions shape how we view reality.

Expectation/Context

We perceive based on what we expect and contextual clues.

Culture (Perception)

Cultural background influences perception of stimuli.

Gestalt Principles

Psychological principles that emphasize the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

Proximity (Gestalt Principle)

We group nearby figures together.

Similarity (Gestalt Principle)

We group figures that are similar.

Continuity (Gestalt Principle)

We perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones.

Closure (Gestalt Principle)

We fill in gaps to create a complete object.

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Sensory Memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information.

Iconic Memory

Momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli.

Echoic Memory

Momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Activated memory holding a few items briefly.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.

Working Memory

Modern concept focusing on conscious active processing of incoming information.

Central Executive (Working Memory)

The 'boss' that directs attention and processes information.

Phonological Loop

Handles auditory information in working memory.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Handles visual and spatial information in working memory.

Encoding

The processing of information into the memory system.

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information.

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units.

Mnemonics

Memory aids using vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Hierarchies (in Encoding)

Dividing broad concepts into narrower concepts and facts.

Spacing Effect

Distributed study yields better long-term retention.

Testing Effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving information.

Shallow Processing

Basic level encoding based on structure or appearance of words.

Deep Processing

Encoding based on the meaning of the words.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

An increase in a synapse's firing potential after rapid stimulation.

Hippocampus

Brain structure involved in explicit memory formation.

Frontal Lobes

Brain structures involved in processing and organizing explicit memories.

Cerebellum

Brain structure for implicit memory and classical conditioning.

Basal Ganglia

Brain structure for procedural memories.

Amygdala

Brain structure related to emotion and memory formation.

Flashbulb Memory

A clear, vivid memory of an emotionally significant moment.

Recall

Retrieving information not currently in conscious awareness.

Recognition

Identifying previously learned items.

Priming

The activation of particular associations in memory.

Context-Dependent Memory

Recall is better in the same environment where learning occurred.

State-Dependent Memory

Recall is better in the same physiological state as during encoding.

Serial Position Effect

Tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

The course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off.

Proactive Interference

Old memory blocks new information.

Retroactive Interference

New memory blocks old information.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories.

Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to retrieve past information.

Concepts

Mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

Prototypes

Best examples of a category.

Algorithm

Methodical, logical procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

Heuristic

Simple thinking strategy for judgments and solving problems.

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem's solution.

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing available solutions to determine the best solution.

Divergent Thinking

Expanding the number of possible solutions.

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to search for information that supports one's preconceptions.

Fixation/Mental Set

Tendency to approach problems in a specific way that has worked in the past.

Functional Fixedness

Thinking of things only in terms of their usual functions.

Overconfidence

Tendency to be more confident than correct.

Framing Effect

The way an issue is posed triggers different decisions.

Availability Heuristic

Estimating likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging likelihood in terms of how well they match particular prototypes.