when a material captures the energy of a light wave
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acellular organisms
without cells, not living
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algae
type of protist, plant- like, can be uni or multicellular, do have cell walls made of cellulose, generally photosynthetic, don’t really cause human disease, can be found in gelatin and toothpaste
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protists
eukaryotic organisms that are not plants, animals, or fungi
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amplitude
height of each peak
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antonie van leeuwenhoek
developed very first microscope, first to see microorganisms, he took a drop of water and called them “animalcules” or “wee little beasties”
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archaea
one of the 3 domains, prokaryote, tend to be unicellular, cell walls made of pseudopeptidoglycan, tend to live in extreme environments, not currently known to cause any human disease, more genetically related to eukaryotes than bacteria
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bacteria
one of the 3 domains, prokaryotic, genetic material is not housed within a true nucleus, most have cell walls that contain peptidoglycan, most are unicellular
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Bergey’s manuals
used to classify prokaryotes, usually bacteria, based on serological and biochemical properties
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binomial nomenclature
naming microbes, genus then species, genus always capitalized and species always lowercase, can be written as first letter capitalized, a period, then last name lowercase
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brightfield microscope
most common microscope; bright background with a dark subject
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candida albicans
unicellular fungus, or yeast; causative agent of vaginal yeast infections as well as oral thrush
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cell theory
cells are the basic unit of life, all living things are made up of cells, all cells come from other cells
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cell wall
structure that encompasses the cell membrane, protects the cell from changes in osmotic pressure, stains differentiate bacteria based on cell wall composition
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cytoskeleton
matrix of fiber and tubes that provide structural support for the cell; can provide a route for materials/ vesicles to be transported in the cell
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darkfield microscope
dark background with a bright subject
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endomembrane system
unique to eukaryotes, a series of membranous compartments that synthesize and move components around the cell
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endoplasmic reticulum
part of the endomembrane system, interconnected flattened disks that synthesize materials for the cell (rough ER: studded with ribosomes, synthesize proteins / smooth ER: appears smooth, no ribosomes, synthesizes lipids and carbs)
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endospores
characteristic of prokaryotic cells, structures that protect the bacterial genome in a dormant state, can survive in dormant state for thousands of years
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eukarya
one of the 3 domains (humans)
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eukaryotes
have a true nucleus, except red blood cells
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fermentation
chemical breakdown of a substance by bacteria, yeasts, or other microorganisms
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fixation
taking either heat or chemicals and killing it and sticking it to the glass slide, permanently attached to slide, allows you to see more distinguishing features, allows you to dye the substance (types: chemical and heat)
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francesco redi
disputed spontaneous generation by creating an experiment where he put rotting pieces of meat in an open container, sealed container, and one covered in gauze. the open container had maggots on the meat. the gauze- covered container had maggots on the gauze.
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frequency
number of wavelengths in a specific time period (low= less waves, high= more waves)
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fundamental components of cells
cytoplasm, membrane, chromosomes, ribosomes
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cytoplasm
gel like substance inside of the cell
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membrane
surrounds the cytoplasm, separates the inside of the cell from the outside
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chromosomes
contain genetic blueprint of the cell, gives instructions on how to make a new cell
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ribosomes
all cells have them, used for synthesizing proteins, prokaryotic are smaller / eukaryotic- can be clinically important as it relates to antibiotics
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prokaryotic cells
lack a nucleus, can have a nucleoid, don’t have its own membrane, usually have a single circular chromosome, lack membrane- bound organelles, usually smaller
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eukaryotic cells
separate nucleus surrounded by a nuclear membrane, usually contain multiple, rod- shaped chromosomes, contain several membrane bound organelles, usually larger
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fungi
eukaryotic microorganism, cell walls usually composed of chitin (unicellular: yeasts; multicellular: molds)
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germ theory of disease
idea that diseases are caused by germs
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Giralamo Fracastoro
early proponent of germ theory, wrote a pamphlet called De Contagione et Contagiosis, found that "seed- like spores” could be transferred through the air, clothing, or direct contact (person to person)
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gram stain
most common type of staining, uses 2 different dyes, distinguishes organisms based on whether they turn dark purple (crystal violet)- gram positive or pink (safranin)- gram negative
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haploid
only one copy
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helminths
eukaryotic microorganism, multicellular parasitic worms, larvae and eggs are typically microscopic
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hypertonic
HIGHER solute concentration than another solution; water moves out of the cell, causing it to shrink
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hypotonic
LOWER solute concentration than another solution, water moves into the cell, causing it to expand and eventually burst
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Ignaz Semmelweis
proposed that physicians wash their hands between patients. he noticed that when a physician attended a birth, 20 % of the time either mother and/or child died from postpartum fever. he noticed that when a midwife attended a birth, only 1% of the time did the mother and/ or child developed fever and died. the midwives only delivered babies, but the physicians saw all kinds of sick patients and delivered babies.
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inclusions
special to prokaryotes, groupings of excess nutrients, toxins, and proteins that they store for themselves, reduces buildup of osmotic pressure
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isotonic
water moves in and out of cell, overall concentration on both sides of the cell membrane remains constant, has the SAME solute concentration as another solution
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joseph lister
50% of his patients died from fever after having performed surgery. he took semmelweis’s handwashing technique and used it. he began forcing everyone to clean everything that might come into contact with a person during surgery. carbolic acid spray was used to disinfect surfaces (listerine was named after him)
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louis pasteur
created pasteurization to kill microorganisms in food, also developed rabies vaccine, disproved spontaneous generation (created curved neck flasks that allowed air to come in and out. dust and physical particles could not get past the curve in the flask. he filled the flasks with broth, made them sterile, then left them. when the flask was curved, the broth stayed clear. when the flask was not curved, the broth became contaminated. the contamination was caused by the microorganisms in the dust.
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lysosomes
small organelles that contain digestive enzymes, allow cells to perform phagocytosis and destroy macromolecules
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magnification
ability of a lens to enlarge an image
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microscopy
science of using microscopes
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microorganisms
too small to be seen with the naked eye, can be multicellular, found everywhere on earth
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nucleoid
characteristic of prokaryotic cell, condensed area of DNA, chromosomes are usually haploid and not bound by a membrane
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opacity
solid, not see through
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osmotic pressure
occurs because of differences in concentrations of solutes
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peptidoglycan
protein found in cell walls
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phylogenies
taxonomy that takes evolutionary relationships into account (early: easily seen with eyes / modern: genetics, biochemical properties, not easily observable, can it eat lactose, glucose, and citrate as a food source?
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plasmid
characteristic of prokaryotic cell, extra bits of extrachromosomal DNA, can often carry genes that can be advantageous (extra toxins, antibiotic resistance)
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prokaryotes
don’t have a true nucleus
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protozoa
type of protist, animal- like, tend to be unicellular, no cell wall, feed on organic matter \`
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reflection
when a light wave bounces off a material (white- reflects all colors / black- absorbs all colors)
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refraction
occurs when light waves change direction as they move through different materials
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resolution
ability to tell that 2 separate points or objects are separate (blurry = low resolution; not blurry = high resolution)
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ribosomes
characteristic of prokaryotic cell, used for synthesizing proteins, smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes
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in eukaryotic cells, ribosomes
can be clinically important as it relates to antibiotics
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robert koch
proved a human disease was caused by a single bacteria
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rough ER
studded with ribosomes
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saccharomyces spp.
yeast responsible for making bread rise
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smooth ER
no ribosomes, appears smooth
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theory of spontaneous generation
idea that life can arise from non- living matter
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Thucydides
father of scientific history, first person to note plague in athens that killed 1/3 of the population, found out that previously infected people could not get it again
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taxonomy
process of classifying different organisms based on description and identification
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linnaean taxonomy
first to create categories of organisms (3: animals, plants, and minerals)
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transmittance
when a wave travels through a material
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transparency
see through
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Trichomoniasis
very common STD caused by infection with Trichomonas vaginalis, a protozoan parasite
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viruses
organisms not composed of cells, contain proteins and some sort of genetic material (either DNA or RNA), cannot survive outside of a host cell, takes over the host cell, doesn’t only infect humans, lack ribosomes, infect other cells to take over their ribosomes and metabolic properties
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wavelength
distance between peaks
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wet mount
put it on microscope slide and look at it, very easy, still alive, can see changes in movement, cannot use immersion oil, highest you can go is 40x
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chloroplasts
eukaryotic organelle, at least 3 membrane systems, photosynthesis- creating energy from light
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golgi apparatus
part of endomembrane system, series of flattened disks that contain enzymes that change the materials produced in the ER, produces glycolipids and glycoproteins
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lysosomes
part of the endomembrane system, small organelle that contains digestive enzymes, allows cell to perform (phagocytosis- cell eating) and destroy macromolecules
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endospores
characteristic of prokaryotic cells, structures that protect the bacterial genome in a dormant state, can survive in dormant state for thousands of years
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clostridium botulinum
cause of botulism, can survive a lot of food preservation methods due to endospores, specifically canning
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clostridium difficile
lives in the digestive tract of humans, forms endospores, very hard to kill
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filamentous appendages in prokaryotic cells
fimbriae and pili- similar structures that aid in surface attachment (reaching or grabbing) or DNA transfer / Flagella- used for movement in aqueous environments, usually rotational, propels bacteria forward (TAIL)
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filamentous appendages in eukaryotic cells
flagella- used for locomotion and more whiplike, larger, 1 or 2 / cilia- shorter appendages used for locomotion or “sweeping” and use a faster waving motion, millions of these
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mitochondria
eukaryotic organelle, double membrane, aerobic cellular respiration- produces energy from chemicals
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morphology (cell shape)
prokaryotic- maintained by the cell wall, only a handful identified / eukaryotic- morphology is much more varied than prokaryotic cells
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coccus
round
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bacillus
rod
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vibrio
curved rod
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coccobacillus
short rod
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spirillum
spiral
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spirochete
long, loose, helical spiral
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nucleoid
characteristic of prokaryotic cell, condensed area of DNA, chromosomes are usually haploid and circular, and not bound by a true nuclear membrane
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nucleus
eukaryotic cells- DNA genome is contained within a complex membrane, controls all activity of the cell, typically have DNA organized into multiple linear chromosomes, cell has total control because the chromosomes are condensed
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typical prokaryotic cell
has a cell membrane, unicellular, most have cell walls, chromosomal DNA within a nucleoid, ribosomes, may have flagella, pili, fimbriae, and capsules
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why can bacteria become resistant to antibiotics very quickly?
plasmids
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antibiotics tend to focus on ways the prokaryote is different from the eukaryote, which are
ribosomes and the cell wall
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plasma membrane
characteristic of prokaryotic cells, allows for selective permeability, most are a bilayer with embedded proteins