Unit 4: Intellectual Shifts and Political Power (1543–1789)

Scientific Revolution

A significant change in scientific thought and methodology in Europe from the mid-16th to late 17th century, moving from a medieval worldview to a modern one.

Empiricism

A theory that states all knowledge is derived from sense-experience and experimentation.

Rationalism

The belief that reason and logic are the primary sources of knowledge.

Geocentric Model

The Ptolemaic system that places a stationary Earth at the center of the universe.

Heliocentric Theory

Proposed by Copernicus, it states that the sun is the center of the universe, with the earth revolving around it.

Nicolaus Copernicus

The astronomer who published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres and proposed the Heliocentric Theory.

Johannes Kepler

An astronomer who formulated the Three Laws of Planetary Motion and proved planets move in elliptical orbits.

Galileo Galilei

Scientist who used the telescope to support heliocentrism and was tried for heresy by the Roman Inquisition.

Isaac Newton

Physicist who synthesized the work of previous scientists and published Principia Mathematica, formulating the Law of Universal Gravitation.

Scientific Method

A systematic way of learning that includes observation, hypothesis, experimentation, analysis, and conclusion.

Inductive Method

Promoted by Francis Bacon, it's a scientific approach that starts with specific observations to form general conclusions.

Deductive Method

Promoted by René Descartes, it's an approach that starts with general premises to reach specific conclusions.

Andreas Vesalius

An anatomist who corrected Galen’s errors by publishing De humani corporis fabrica.

William Harvey

Physician who discovered the circulation of blood and proved the heart is a pump.

Enlightenment

An intellectual movement (c. 1715–1789) that applied reason and natural laws to society and government.

Reason

The absence of intolerance, bigotry, or superstition.

Natural Rights

Rights that individuals are born with, according to John Locke, including life, liberty, and property.

Separation of Powers

A principle articulated by Montesquieu, advocating for distinct branches of government.

Freedom of Speech

A principle promoted by Voltaire, advocating for the right to communicate ideas without censorship.

General Will

Rousseau's concept that the common good of the community should dictate laws.

Mercantilism

An economic policy that emphasizes government regulation of the economy for state power.

Physiocrats

Early economists in France who criticized mercantilism and believed land was the source of wealth.

Laissez-Faire

An economic principle introduced by Adam Smith, advocating minimal government interference in the economy.

Invisible Hand

Adam Smith's metaphor for the self-regulating nature of the marketplace.

Deism

The belief in a non-intervening 'Watchmaker God', who created the universe based on natural laws.

Skepticism

A philosophy that questions human certainty, exemplified by thinkers like David Hume.

Mary Wollstonecraft

An advocate for women's education, author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman.

Olympe de Gouges

An advocate for women's political rights, author of Declaration of the Rights of Woman (1791).

Agricultural Revolution

A period before the Industrial Revolution marked by significant innovations in farming techniques.

Enclosure Movement

The consolidation of small landholdings into larger farms that resulted in the displacement of poor peasants.

Crop Rotation

A farming technique that enhances soil fertility by rotating different crops in a specific order.

Seed Drill

An invention by Jethro Tull that allowed for seeds to be planted in rows.

Population Explosion

The rapid population growth in Europe during the 18th Century due to agricultural improvements and medical advancements.

Inoculation

An early method of preventing disease, notably introduced to England by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu.

Vaccination

The process developed by Edward Jenner to prevent smallpox using the cowpox virus.

Child Rearing

The methods and practices of raising children, significantly influenced by Rousseau's ideas in Emile.

Illegitimacy Explosion

The rise in premarital births in the 18th century as urbanization led to weakening community controls.

Cottage Industry

A system in which rural families produced goods in their homes before the industrialization of factories.

Rococo

An art movement characterized by lightness, elegance, and exuberance, focused on aristocratic leisure.

Neoclassicism

An art movement that emphasized classical themes, moral seriousness, and symmetry.

Consumer Revolution

A period of increased consumerism where people began purchasing goods for comfort and status.

Public Sphere

The intellectual and social space that emerged outside royal courts, including coffeehouses and salons.

Enlightened Absolutism

A form of absolute monarchy that embraces Enlightenment ideals without surrendering royal power.

Frederick II

The Prussian monarch known for his religious toleration and education reforms but maintained serfdom.

Catherine II

The Russian empress who patronized Enlightenment thinkers and attempted reforms but faced resistance.

Joseph II

The radical Austrian emperor who abolished serfdom and promoted religious tolerance but faced backlash.