12.1 - Types of Solutions

• Chemists also classify solutions according to their ability to dissolve a solute.

  • At a given temperature, a saturated solution contains the maximum quantity of a solute that will dissolve in a given solvent.

  • An unsaturated solution contains less solute than it can dissolve.

  • A supersaturated solution, on the other hand, contains more solute than a saturated solution.

  • The process of crystallization is when a dissolved solute separates from its solution and forms crystals.

12.2 - A Molecular View of the Solution Process

• When sodium chloride dissolves in water, hydration, which involves ion-dipole interaction, stabilizes the ions in solution.

  • Solvation is the process of encircling an ion or molecule with a certain arrangement of solvent molecules.

  • When the solvent is water, the process is known as hydration.

12.3 - Concentration Units

• The percent by mass is the ratio of a solute's mass to the mass of the solution multiplied by 100 percent.

• The number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kilogram (1000 g) of solvent is referred to as molality.

12.4 - The Effect of Temperature on Solubility

• Remember that solubility refers to the amount of a solute that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a particular temperature.

  • The separation of a mixture of substances into pure components based on their different solubilities is known as fractional crystallization.

12.5 - The Effect of Pressure on the Solubility of Gases

• Henry's law, which states that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is proportionate to the pressure of the gas above the solution

  • It describes the quantitative relationship between gas solubility and pressure.

12.6 - Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions

• Colligative qualities are properties that are determined only by the numberforwardingof solute particles in solution, not by their type.

• The vapor pressure of a nonvolatile solute's solution is always lower than the vapor pressure of the pure solvent.

  • The vapor pressure of a solvent over a solution, P1, is provided by the vapor pressure of the pure solvent, P°, times the mole fraction of the solvent in the solution, X, according to Raoult's law.

• One of the few examples of an ideal solution, which is any solution that obeys Raoult's law, is the benzene-toluene mixture.

• Fractional distillation, a method of separating liquid components of a solution based on their differing boiling points, is directly affected by solution vapor pressure.

  • The boiling-point elevation (Tb) is calculated by subtracting the solution's boiling point (Tb) from the pure solvent's boiling point (Tb°)

  • A solution's osmotic pressure pi is the pressure required to stop osmosis.

12.7 - Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions

• Because electrostatic forces come into play at larger concentrations and cause the production of ion pairs, the colligative qualities of electrolyte solutions are frequently smaller than expected.

  • One or more cations and one or more anions form an ion pair, which is kept together by electrostatic forces.

12.8 - Colloids

• A heterogeneous combination is something like this.

  • A colloidal suspension, or simply a colloid, is a condition that exists between these two extremes.

  • A colloid is a dispersion of one material's particles in a dispersing medium composed of another substance.

  • Hydrophilic, or water-loving, colloids are split into two categories: hydrophobic, or water-fearing, colloids.