AP United States Government and Politics Vocabulary

14th Amendment

This amendment to the U.S. Constitution protects various aspects of citizenship and citizens' rights and has been invoked in several well-known cases. The most familiar phrase in the 14th amendment is 'equal protection of the laws'; this phrase played a key role in cases like Brown v. Board of Education (racial discrimination), Roe v. Wade (reproductive rights), and Reed v. Reed (gender discrimination).

Example: "In Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court relied on the         's equal protection clause to rule that racially segregated public schools were unconstitutional."

15th Amendment

Constitutional amendment that granted African American men the right to vote.

Example: "Although the          guaranteed African American men the right to vote after the Civil War, Southern states used poll taxes and literacy tests to effectively disenfranchise Black voters for nearly a century."

17th Amendment

Constitutional amendment that changed the election of Senators from selection by state legislatures to direct election by the people.

Example: "The ratification of the          shifted the election of U.S. Senators from state legislatures to a direct popular vote, increasing democratic accountability."

19th Amendment

Constitutional amendment that granted women the right to vote.

Example: "Women's suffrage advocates celebrated the ratification of the          in 1920, which constitutionally guaranteed women the right to vote in federal and state elections."

24th Amendment

Constitutional amendment that eliminated poll taxes as a requirement for voting.

Example: "The          eliminated poll taxes in federal elections, removing a financial barrier that had been used to suppress voter participation among low-income citizens."

26th Amendment

Constitutional amendment that lowered the voting age to 18 years old.

Example: "Driven by arguments that those old enough to be drafted should have a voice in government, the          extended voting rights to citizens 18 years of age and older."

Absentee voting

A method of voting that allows individuals to cast ballots before election day without being physically present at the polling place.

Example: "Military personnel stationed overseas frequently rely on          to participate in elections without being physically present at their home precinct."

Abuse of power

The improper or unlawful exercise of authority by a public official beyond the scope of their legitimate powers.

Example: "Congress cited          as one of the articles of impeachment, arguing that the president had used the office to pressure a foreign government for personal political gain."

Access

The ability of interest groups to gain direct contact and communication with important policymakers and government officials.

Example: "Well-funded interest groups such as the National Rifle Association maintain extensive          to congressional leaders, allowing them to present their positions directly to key policymakers."

Access points

Opportunities or venues through which stakeholders and institutions can influence the policy process at different levels of government.

Example: "The federal system provides interest groups with multiple          — including Congress, the executive agencies, and the courts — through which they can attempt to influence public policy."

Accountability

The requirement that government officials and agencies be responsible for their actions and answerable to other branches of government and the public.

Example: "Congressional oversight hearings serve as a mechanism of         , requiring executive agencies to explain their actions and use of taxpayer funds to elected representatives."

Accurate reporting

The clear and honest presentation of poll data and conclusions that are directly supported by the data collected.

Example: "A poll with a margin of error of plus or minus 3 percent and a clearly defined sample must be accompanied by          so that audiences understand the limitations of the data."

Affirmative action

The practice or policy of allocating resources or employment to individuals belonging to groups that have a history of being discriminated against.

Example: "The Supreme Court has repeatedly been asked to determine the constitutional limits of          policies in university admissions under the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment."

Agencies

Federal organizations responsible for implementing and enforcing laws and policies in specific areas of government responsibility.

Example: "The Environmental Protection Agency is one of many federal          responsible for implementing and enforcing legislation passed by Congress, such as the Clean Air Act."

Agenda setting

The media's power to influence which political issues and events the public considers important by deciding what to cover and how prominently to feature it.

Example: "When major television networks devoted extensive coverage to healthcare costs, they engaged in          by signaling to the public that this issue deserved significant political attention."

Ambassadors

Diplomatic representatives appointed by the president to represent the United States in foreign countries, requiring Senate confirmation.

Example: "Under the Constitution, the president nominates          to represent the United States abroad, but those nominations are subject to confirmation by the Senate."

Amendment process

The formal procedure outlined in Article V for modifying the Constitution, requiring either a two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress or a proposal from two-thirds of state legislatures, with ratification by three-fourths of the states.

Example: "The Framers designed the          to be deliberately difficult, requiring a two-thirds vote in both chambers of Congress and ratification by three-fourths of the states, so that the Constitution would reflect broad consensus."

Amendments

Additions to the Constitution that further protect the rights and liberties of the people from government interference. The first ten amendments added to the Constitution are called the Bill of Rights. There are 27 constitutional amendments total.

Example: "The Bill of Rights consists of the first ten          to the Constitution, added in 1791 to protect individual liberties from potential overreach by the newly formed federal government."

Amicus curiae brief

A written document submitted to a court by a 'friend of the court' (typically an interest group) to provide additional information for judicial consideration in a case.

Example: "The American Civil Liberties Union submitted an          in the landmark free speech case, urging the Supreme Court to rule in favor of broader First Amendment protections."

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of the ratification of the Constitution who opposed a strong central government and wanted more power reserved to state governments.

Example: "         like the author of Brutus No. 1 argued that the proposed Constitution concentrated too much power in the central government and threatened individual liberties and state sovereignty."

Appointment powers

The president's authority to select and nominate individuals to fill positions in the executive and judicial branches, subject to Senate confirmation.

Example: "The president's          allow the executive to shape the ideological direction of the federal judiciary by nominating individuals to fill Supreme Court vacancies, subject to Senate confirmation."

Article III

The section of the U.S. Constitution that establishes the judicial branch and defines the structure and powers of the federal court system.

Example: "         of the Constitution establishes the Supreme Court and grants Congress the authority to create lower federal courts, forming the foundation of the federal judiciary."

Articles of Confederation

The first constitution of the United States that established a weak central government with limited powers, adopted in 1781.

Example: "The inability of the central government under the          to levy taxes or regulate interstate commerce revealed critical weaknesses that motivated delegates to draft a new Constitution in 1787."

Assimilation

The process by which individuals or groups adopt the cultural traits and values of the dominant society.

Example: "Debates over immigration policy often center on whether government should actively encourage the          of newcomers into mainstream American culture or support multicultural pluralism."

Attack ads

Political advertisements that criticize or attack an opponent rather than promote a candidate's own positions.

Example: "During the final weeks of a Senate campaign, the incumbent's opponents ran          that focused on the challenger's voting record rather than presenting an alternative policy agenda."

Balance of power

The distribution of authority and control between the national government and state governments in the federal system.

Example: "Disputes between the federal government and state governments over marijuana policy illustrate ongoing tensions in the          within the American federal system."

Bargaining and persuasion

Informal powers through which the president negotiates with Congress and uses political influence to secure legislative action.

Example: "Lacking a formal legislative role, the president relies on          — such as offering support for a senator's priority projects — to build the coalitions needed to pass key legislation."

Benchmark poll

A type of scientific poll that establishes baseline views and initial measurements of a candidate's support at the beginning of a campaign.

Example: "Early in the election cycle, the campaign commissioned a          to measure initial name recognition and voter favorability before launching its first round of television advertisements."

Bicameral

A legislative system divided into two separate chambers or houses, designed to balance representation and create checks on legislative power.

Example: "The United States has a          legislature composed of the Senate, which provides equal representation to each state, and the House of Representatives, which is based on population."

Bill of attainder

A legislative act (historically used by Parliament) that declares a person or group of people guilty of a crime and rendering punishment, often without a fair trial. A bill of attainder effectively nullifies the targeted person's civil rights. The use of such bills has been largely rejected due to the potential for abuse and violation of due process and separation of powers.

Example: "The Constitution explicitly prohibits Congress from passing a         , protecting individuals from legislative acts that would declare them guilty and impose punishment without a judicial trial."

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution that protect individual civil liberties and rights.

Example: "Anti-Federalists' insistence that a          be added to the Constitution led to the ratification of the first ten amendments, which protect freedoms such as speech, religion, and due process."

Bills

Proposed legislation that is introduced in Congress for consideration and potential passage into law.

Example: "Before          can become law, they must be approved by committee, debated and passed in both the House and the Senate, and then signed by the president or passed over a presidential veto."

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002

Federal legislation designed to regulate campaign finance by banning soft money contributions and requiring candidates to approve their own advertisements.

Example: "The          banned soft money contributions to national political parties, though subsequent court rulings have limited its effectiveness in regulating outside spending."

Block grants

Grants given to local or state governments from the U.S. federal government. Block grants typically have some strings attached, but the local or state government also has the freedom to allocate the grant funds for a wide range of services to the state or locality.

Example: "Conservatives often advocate for replacing categorical grants with         , arguing that giving states broader discretion over federal funds respects the principles of federalism."

Board of Education of Independent School District No. 92 of Pottawatomie County v. Earls

A 2008 Supreme Court case illustrating the scope and limitations of substantive due process and privacy rights.

Example: "In         , the Supreme Court ruled that random drug testing of students participating in extracurricular activities did not violate Fourth Amendment protections."

Brutus No. 1

An Anti-Federalist essay that critiques the proposed Constitution and argues for greater direct participation and smaller republics.

Example: "In         , the Anti-Federalist author warned that the necessary and proper clause would allow the federal government to expand its powers without limit, ultimately threatening state sovereignty and individual liberty."

Budget

Congress's annual financial plan that allocates funds for mandatory and discretionary spending programs.

Example: "The president submits a proposed          to Congress each year, but it is Congress's constitutional responsibility to pass appropriations legislation that actually funds government programs."

Budget deficit

The shortfall that occurs when government spending exceeds tax revenues.

Example: "When Congress appropriates more money than the federal government collects in tax revenue, the resulting          must be financed by borrowing, which increases the national debt."

Bulk collection of telecommunication metadata

Large-scale government gathering of communication records, regulated by the Patriot Act and USA Freedom Act.

Example: "Following the Edward Snowden revelations, Congress debated whether the NSA's          was a permissible national security tool or an unconstitutional violation of Fourth Amendment privacy rights."

Bully pulpit

A term first used by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt, used to refer to his office as president as an ideal position from which to advocate his political agenda. In general, the term refers to a position that provides an opportunity to speak out and be heard by many.

Example: "President Theodore Roosevelt used the          to champion progressive reforms, delivering speeches across the country to build public support for antitrust legislation and conservation policies."

Bureaucracy

The system of departments, agencies, commissions, and government corporations that implement federal policy and carry out the responsibilities of the federal government.

Example: "Critics argue that the federal          has grown too large and unresponsive, while supporters contend that a professional          is essential for implementing complex national policies efficiently."

Cabinet

The group of department heads and other officials who advise the president and help implement the policy agenda.

Example: "The          advises the president on policy matters and helps coordinate the work of executive departments, though its influence on presidential decision-making varies by administration."

Cabinet members

Heads of executive departments who advise the president and lead federal agencies, requiring Senate confirmation.

Example: "Because          require Senate confirmation, the appointment process allows Congress to scrutinize the qualifications and policy views of the president's most senior advisers."

Calendar assignment

The process of scheduling bills for consideration and debate in a legislative chamber.

Example: "In the House, the Rules Committee controls         , determining when bills reach the floor for debate and what amendments, if any, members will be permitted to offer."

Campaign contributions

Money donated by individuals, organizations, and political parties to support candidates and political campaigns.

Example: "Federal law limits the amount individuals can make in direct          to candidates, though Citizens United opened the door to unlimited independent expenditures by corporations and unions."

Campaign costs

The total expenses incurred by a campaign, including advertising, staff, and operational expenses.

Example: "Rapidly rising          have made fundraising a central preoccupation of members of Congress, with some critics arguing that this dependence on money undermines independent policymaking."

Campaign finance

The money raised and spent by candidates, political parties, and interest groups to support political campaigns and elections.

Example: "The Supreme Court's ruling in Citizens United v. FEC fundamentally altered          law by holding that corporations and unions have a First Amendment right to spend unlimited amounts on independent political expenditures."

Campaign finance law

Legislation that regulates the raising and spending of money in political campaigns, influencing how parties structure and operate.

Example: "Changes in         , particularly the rise of super PACs following Citizens United, have altered how political parties and outside groups interact during election cycles."

Campaign management

The coordination of activities and resources to promote a candidate's election, including strategy, messaging, and voter outreach.

Example: "Effective          requires coordinating voter outreach, media strategy, and fundraising efforts to maximize a candidate's chances of winning on election day."

Campaign organizations

Structured groups and teams that manage and coordinate activities for a political candidate's election campaign.

Example: "Modern presidential          employ hundreds of staff members who specialize in data analytics, digital advertising, and field operations to identify and mobilize supporters."

Campaign strategies

Planned approaches and tactics used by campaigns to influence voters and achieve electoral success.

Example: "In battleground states, candidates deploy          that emphasize base mobilization and targeted outreach to independent voters who are most likely to determine the outcome."

Candidate recruitment

The process by which political parties identify, evaluate, and encourage individuals to run for elected office.

Example: "National party committees invest heavily in         , identifying and training potential office-seekers who can compete effectively in competitive districts."

Candidate-centered campaigns

Electoral campaigns that focus on the personal characteristics, qualities, and appeal of individual candidates rather than on party platforms or party identity.

Example: "The rise of television and social media has accelerated the shift toward         , in which voters make choices based on a candidate's personal image and record rather than party affiliation."

Canvassing

A campaign tactic involving direct contact with voters, typically door-to-door, to discuss issues and encourage support.

Example: "Get-out-the-vote organizations deployed thousands of volunteers for          in key precincts, knocking on doors to encourage registered voters to cast their ballots on election day."

Case precedent

A court decision or ruling that serves as an authoritative example or rule for future cases with similar facts and legal issues.

Example: "Under the doctrine of stare decisis, the Supreme Court typically follows          from earlier decisions, though it may overturn precedent when it determines that a prior ruling was fundamentally incorrect."

Casework

Efforts by state representatives and senators to help individual constituents receive things that those constituents believe they deserve. Casework by members of Congress is a form of stepping around bureaucracy in order to get things done.

Example: "A constituent who could not obtain veterans' benefits contacted her representative's district office, and the staff's          on her behalf helped resolve the bureaucratic dispute within weeks."

Categorical grants

National funding restricted to specific categories of expenditures; preferred by the national government and the most commonly used form of federal funding.

Example: "The federal government uses          for programs such as Title I education funding, attaching specific requirements that states must meet to receive and use the money."

Caucus

A gathering of local party members to choose candidates for public office or delegates to the national party convention and to decide the party platform. Caucuses are often held in schools, churches, auditoriums, or other locations that can host large numbers of a party's base.

Example: "Iowa holds the first presidential          of the election cycle, where registered party members gather at local sites to express their candidate preferences and select delegates to the national convention."

Cell phone data

Personal information stored on mobile devices protected from warrantless searches under Fourth Amendment rights.

Example: "In Carpenter v. United States, the Supreme Court ruled that the government generally must obtain a warrant to access          showing a person's historical location, extending Fourth Amendment protections to digital records."

Central government

The national government with authority over the entire country, as opposed to state or local governments.

Example: "A major debate at the Constitutional Convention concerned how much authority to grant the          relative to the states, resulting in a federal system that divides powers between both levels."

Check of executive authorization

Congressional oversight mechanisms that limit and constrain the President's power to direct executive branch actions.

Example: "Congress exercises a          through the War Powers Resolution, which requires the president to notify Congress within 48 hours of deploying military forces and limits unauthorized deployments to 60 days."

Checks and balances

The system of constitutional provisions that allows each branch of government to limit the powers of the other branches, preventing any single branch from becoming too powerful.

Example: "The Senate's power to confirm or reject presidential nominees illustrates how          prevent any single branch from exercising unchecked authority over the composition of the federal government."

Citizenship

Legal status granted to persons born or naturalized in the U.S., which carries rights including the right to vote.

Example: "The 14th Amendment established birthright         , guaranteeing that all persons born or naturalized in the United States are entitled to the full rights and protections of         ."

Civic organizations

Groups and institutions focused on community service and civic participation that contribute to political socialization.

Example: "Membership in          such as the League of Women Voters or local service clubs can foster political socialization by exposing individuals to community issues and encouraging civic participation."

Civil liberties

The freedom of citizens to exercise customary rights without abridgement by legislation or judicial interpretation. Five basic civil liberties are protected by the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. These basic civil liberties are freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, and freedom to petition the government.

Example: "The First Amendment protects fundamental          including freedom of speech and religion, limiting the government's ability to restrict what citizens say, believe, or publish."

Civil rights

Ensure the individual citizen's rights and entitlement to participate in the civil and political life of society and state without discrimination or repression. Civil rights include protection from discrimination on the basis of gender, sexual orientation, color, race, ethnicity, age, political affiliation, religion, and disability.

Example: "The          Act of 1964 expanded          protections by prohibiting discrimination based on race, sex, and national origin in employment and public accommodations."

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Federal legislation that prohibits discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in public places, schools, and employment.

Example: "By prohibiting racial discrimination in hotels, restaurants, and workplaces, the          used Congress's commerce clause authority to dismantle the legal framework of segregation in the South."

Civil Service

All government officials who work in government occupations that are neither judicial nor political are in civil service, and they're referred to as 'civil servants.' In the U.S., civil servants are non-elected and non-military public sector employees of U.S. federal government departments and agencies.

Example: "The Pendleton          Reform Act of 1883 replaced the spoils system with a merit-based         , requiring applicants for many federal positions to pass competitive examinations."

Clear and present danger

A legal standard for determining when speech can be restricted because it poses an immediate threat to public safety or national security.

Example: "In Schenck v. United States, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes articulated the          standard, ruling that speech could be restricted when it posed an immediate threat, such as falsely shouting fire in a crowded theater."

Closed primary

A primary election in which only registered members of a political party are allowed to vote.

Example: "In a         , only registered Democrats can vote in the Democratic contest and only registered Republicans in the Republican contest, which tends to favor ideologically consistent party nominees."

Cloture

A Senate procedure that ends debate and forces a vote on a bill, typically requiring a supermajority of senators.

Example: "Senate leaders filed a          motion to end the filibuster on the judicial nomination, and after securing 60 votes, the chamber was able to proceed to a confirmation vote."

Coin money

The exclusive power of the federal government to create and issue currency.

Example: "Under the Constitution, only the federal government has the authority to         , preventing states from issuing their own currencies and ensuring a uniform national monetary system."

Commander-in-chief

The formal power of the president to serve as the supreme military authority and direct military operations.

Example: "As         , the president directs military operations and can deploy troops, though Congress retains the power to declare war and fund the armed forces."

Commerce clause

Part of Article 1 of the Constitution that allows Congress to regulate the buying and selling of goods across state lines (also known as interstate commerce).

Example: "Congress relied on the          to justify the Civil Rights Act of 1964, arguing that racial discrimination in hotels and restaurants substantially affected interstate commerce."

Commissions

Federal bodies typically composed of appointed officials that regulate specific industries or policy areas and enforce compliance.

Example: "The Federal Communications Commission is one of several independent          that regulate specific industries, setting rules for broadcasting and telecommunications without direct presidential control over day-to-day decisions."

Committee of the Whole

A procedural mechanism in the House that allows all members to participate in debate on a bill to expedite the legislative process.

Example: "The House convened as a          to debate the appropriations bill, allowing all 435 members to participate in amendments while operating under more flexible procedural rules than normal floor debate."

Committee systems

The organizational structure of legislative committees led by party members who manage legislative priorities and assignments.

Example: "The congressional          are organized largely along party lines, with majority party members chairing committees and controlling which bills receive hearings and are advanced for floor consideration."

Committees

Specialized groups of legislators within Congress that conduct hearings, debate, and review bills before they are considered by the full chamber.

Example: "Most legislation is shaped in congressional         , where members hold hearings, gather expert testimony, and mark up bills before they are sent to the full chamber for a vote."

Communication technology

Tools and platforms used by the president to communicate with the public, including modern media such as social media and broadcast television.

Example: "Modern presidents use          — from fireside radio chats to social media platforms — to bypass traditional media and speak directly to the American public in support of their policy agendas."

Competing interests

Conflicting goals and priorities among different branches of government that may limit their ability to work together on oversight.

Example: "         between the House, the Senate, and the White House can make effective congressional oversight difficult, as each institution may have different political priorities and incentives."

Compliance monitoring

The process of overseeing and verifying that executive agencies are using funds appropriately and following established regulations.

Example: "The Government Accountability Office assists Congress in          by auditing how federal agencies spend appropriated funds and whether they are following the intent of enacted legislation."

Concurrent powers

Powers shared between both the national and state governments, such as the power to collect taxes, make and enforce laws, and build roads.

Example: "Both the federal government and state governments exercise          such as the authority to levy taxes, build roads, and establish courts within their respective jurisdictions."

Conference committee

A joint committee formed to reconcile differences between versions of a bill passed by both chambers of Congress.

Example: "After the House and Senate passed different versions of the tax reform bill, a          was formed to negotiate a unified version that both chambers would then vote on again."

Congress

The legislative branch of the federal government, composed of the Senate and House of Representatives, responsible for making federal laws.

Example: "Under Article I of the Constitution,          holds the power to make federal law, levy taxes, and declare war, making it the central legislative body of the national government."

Congressional agenda

The formal list of policies and legislation that Congress is considering at any given time.

Example: "The president's State of the Union address is an opportunity to attempt to set the          by highlighting legislative priorities and calling on lawmakers to act on key issues."

Congressional legislation

Laws passed by Congress that can modify or override the effects of Supreme Court decisions.

Example: "After the Supreme Court narrowly interpreted the scope of the Voting Rights Act, Congress responded with          to restore and expand the protections the Court had limited."

Congressional oversight

Authority held by Congress to review, monitor, and supervise federal agencies, programs, activities, and policy implementation. This authority is implied in the Constitution, public laws, and House and Senate rules.

Example: "Through hearings, subpoenas, and investigations,          serves as a check on the executive branch by ensuring that agencies implement laws as intended and do not abuse their authority."

Conservative ideology

A political ideology that generally favors less national government involvement in addressing social issues, with more responsibility left to state governments.

Example: "Reflecting         , the proposal called for returning control of education standards to state governments rather than expanding the role of the federal Department of Education."

Constitution

The supreme law of the United States that establishes the framework of the federal government and defines the relationship between the national government and the states, and between the government and the people.

Example: "As the supreme law of the land, the          takes precedence over any conflicting federal statute or state law, and any law that violates it can be struck down by the federal courts."

Constitutional Convention

The 1787 gathering of delegates that drafted the U.S. Constitution and negotiated the compromises necessary for its ratification.

Example: "At the          of 1787, delegates forged the Great Compromise, creating a bicameral legislature with proportional representation in the House and equal representation in the Senate."

Constitutional precedent

Previously established interpretations of the Constitution that guide judicial decision-making.

Example: "The Court's ruling in Marbury v. Madison established          for judicial review, giving federal courts the authority to strike down laws that violate the Constitution."

Consumer-driven media outlets

Media organizations that prioritize audience preferences and market demand in determining what content to produce and distribute.

Example: "The growth of         , which tailor content to audience preferences, has contributed to increased political polarization as viewers self-select news sources that confirm their existing beliefs."

Controversial decisions

Court rulings that generate significant public debate or disagreement due to their legal or political implications.

Example: "Roe v. Wade was one of the most          in Supreme Court history, generating decades of political debate over abortion rights and the proper role of the judiciary in resolving divisive social issues."

Cooperative federalism

Also known as 'marble cake federalism.' This is a political system wherein federal, state, and local governments share responsibility in governing the people, and they work together cooperatively to solve problems.

Example: "The federal highway system exemplifies         , with the federal government providing funding and setting standards while state governments manage construction and maintenance."

Core values

Fundamental beliefs held by U.S. citizens that shape their attitudes about government and their relationships with one another.

Example: "         such as individual liberty, equality, and democracy form the ideological foundation of American political culture and shape public attitudes toward government programs and civil rights."

Court of Appeals judges

Federal judges appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate to serve on appellate courts.

Example: "Because          serve lifetime appointments after Senate confirmation, the ideological composition of the circuit courts has lasting consequences for how federal law is interpreted across different regions."

Court rulings

Judicial decisions made by courts that interpret laws and establish legal precedents.

Example: "         by the Supreme Court in cases such as Citizens United v. FEC have profoundly shaped campaign finance law, determining the constitutional limits of government regulation of political spending."

Court-packing plan

A proposal to increase the number of Supreme Court justices to change the ideological composition of the Court.

Example: "President Franklin Roosevelt's          to add up to six new justices was widely criticized as an attempt to undermine judicial independence, and Congress ultimately rejected the proposal."

Courts

The judicial branch of the federal government, responsible for interpreting laws and determining their constitutionality.

Example: "Federal          play a key role in the system of checks and balances by exercising the power of judicial review, striking down executive actions or legislation that violate the Constitution."

Credibility

The degree to which public opinion data and claims based on it are trustworthy and worthy of belief.

Example: "A poll conducted with a large, randomly selected sample and a low margin of error has greater          than an online survey that relies on self-selected respondents who may not represent the broader population."