AP European History Vocabulary

Absolutism

A political system in which a single ruler holds unlimited centralized authority and absolute sovereignty, free from constitutional checks or balances.

Similar definitions: absolute monarchy, autocracy

Example: "Louis XIV of France epitomized          with his alleged declaration 'L'état, c'est moi' ('I am the state')."

Act of Supremacy

English law passed in 1534 declaring King Henry VIII the supreme head of the Church of England, formally severing ties with the Roman Catholic papacy.

Example: "The          established royal authority over the English Church and marked the beginning of the English Reformation."

Adam Smith

Scottish economist and philosopher who wrote The Wealth of Nations (1776), critiquing mercantilism and advocating free-market capitalism based on supply, demand, and competition.

Example: "         argued that an 'invisible hand' naturally guided markets toward efficiency without government intervention."

Age of Discovery

A period from the 15th to 17th centuries when European nations explored and mapped the world, seeking new trade routes and territories.

Similar definitions: Age of Exploration

Example: "The          was driven by advances in navigation, the desire for spices and gold, and the spread of Christianity."

Agricultural Revolution

A period of agricultural transformation in 18th-century Europe, particularly Britain, involving crop rotation, selective breeding, and enclosure of common lands, which increased food production and fueled population growth.

Example: "The          increased crop yields and freed up labor for the factories of the Industrial Revolution."

Alexander II

Tsar of Russia (r. 1855-1881) known as the 'Tsar Liberator' for emancipating the serfs in 1861 and implementing judicial and military reforms, though he was assassinated by revolutionary terrorists.

Example: "        's Great Reforms modernized Russia but failed to prevent the rise of revolutionary movements."

Alsace-Lorraine

A border region between France and Germany that was annexed by Germany after the Franco-Prussian War (1871) and returned to France by the Treaty of Versailles (1919).

Example: "France's desire to recover          was a major source of Franco-German tensions leading up to World War I."

Anabaptists

Radical Protestant reformers who advocated adult baptism, separation of church and state, and pacifism; persecuted by both Catholics and other Protestants.

Similar definitions: Radical Reformation

Example: "The          rejected infant baptism and insisted that only adults who consciously chose their faith should be baptized."

Anarchism

A political philosophy that rejects all forms of hierarchical government and advocates voluntary cooperation and the abolition of the state, influential in the late 19th-century labor movement.

Example: "         inspired radical movements across Europe, including the assassination of several heads of state."

Ancien Régime

The political and social system of France before the Revolution of 1789, characterized by absolute monarchy, feudal privileges, and a rigid class structure of three estates.

Similar definitions: Old Regime

Example: "The          burdened the Third Estate with heavy taxes while the clergy and nobility enjoyed exemptions."

Ancien Régime (Europe-wide)

The political, social, and economic order prevailing across much of Europe before the French Revolution, characterized by monarchical rule, aristocratic privilege, and hierarchical social structures based on birth.

Example: "The French Revolution challenged the foundations of the          throughout Europe."

Anglo-Dutch Wars

A series of 17th-century naval conflicts between England and the Dutch Republic over commercial and colonial rivalry, which ultimately weakened Dutch maritime supremacy.

Example: "The          reflected the intense commercial competition between the two leading maritime powers of the era."

Anschluss

The annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany in March 1938, which united the two German-speaking nations in violation of the Treaty of Versailles and was a key step in Hitler's expansionist agenda.

Example: "The          incorporated Austria into the Third Reich without resistance from Western powers."

Anti-Corn Law League

A British political movement (1838-1846) led by Richard Cobden and John Bright that successfully campaigned for the repeal of the Corn Laws, advocating free trade over protectionism.

Example: "The          mobilized middle-class opinion against agricultural tariffs and achieved a landmark victory for free trade."

Anti-Semitism

Prejudice, discrimination, or hostility directed against Jewish people, which has deep roots in European history and reached its most extreme form in the Holocaust.

Example: "Centuries of European          created conditions that enabled the Nazi regime to carry out the Holocaust."

Apartheid

The system of racial segregation enforced in South Africa from 1948 to 1994, a legacy of European colonialism that drew international condemnation and sanctions.

Example: "         in South Africa was rooted in European colonial racial hierarchies and became a major human rights issue."

Appeasement

The diplomatic policy of making concessions to aggressive powers to avoid conflict, most notably Britain and France's approach toward Nazi Germany in the 1930s.

Example: "The Munich Agreement of 1938 became the defining example of          when Britain and France allowed Hitler to annex the Sudetenland."

Aristocracy

The hereditary ruling class of nobles and landowners who dominated European political, social, and economic life from the Middle Ages through the 19th century.

Example: "The European          gradually lost political power as democratic reforms expanded voting rights to the middle and working classes."

Armenian Genocide

The systematic mass murder of approximately 1.5 million Armenians by the Ottoman Empire during World War I (1915-1923), considered one of the first modern genocides.

Example: "The          demonstrated the dangers of extreme nationalism and ethnic persecution during wartime."

Armistice (1918)

The ceasefire agreement signed on November 11, 1918, that ended fighting in World War I, followed by the Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles.

Example: "The          brought four years of devastating warfare to an end, though the peace settlement that followed created new tensions."

Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

The murder of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne by a Bosnian Serb nationalist in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, which triggered a chain of alliance obligations that led to World War I.

Example: "The          set off a diplomatic crisis that escalated into a general European war within weeks."

Atlantic Slave Trade

The forced transportation of millions of Africans to the Americas between the 16th and 19th centuries to provide labor for plantation economies, forming one leg of the triangular trade network.

Example: "The          devastated African societies while generating enormous wealth for European colonial powers."

Auschwitz

The largest and most notorious Nazi concentration and extermination camp complex in occupied Poland, where approximately 1.1 million people, mostly Jews, were murdered during the Holocaust.

Example: "         became the most powerful symbol of the Holocaust and the industrialized nature of Nazi genocide."

Axis Powers

The alliance of Germany, Italy, and Japan during World War II that opposed the Allied Powers.

Example: "The          shared fascist or militarist ideologies and sought to expand their territorial control through military conquest."

Bacon, Francis

English philosopher (1561-1626) who championed inductive reasoning and the empirical method, arguing that knowledge should be built through systematic observation and experimentation rather than deduction from first principles.

Example: "        's emphasis on inductive reasoning laid the philosophical groundwork for the modern scientific method."

Balance of Power

A diplomatic principle in which European nations sought to prevent any single state from becoming dominant by forming alliances and counterbalancing rivals.

Example: "The Congress of Vienna restored the          in Europe after the disruption caused by Napoleon's conquests."

Balfour Declaration

A 1917 British statement supporting the establishment of a 'national home for the Jewish people' in Palestine, which had significant implications for the post-war Middle East.

Example: "The          reflected wartime diplomacy and planted the seeds for the Israeli-Palestinian conflict."

Balkans Crisis

A series of political and military crises in the Balkan Peninsula in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, driven by nationalist movements, great power rivalries, and the decline of the Ottoman Empire, contributing to World War I.

Example: "The          made southeastern Europe the 'powder keg' that ultimately exploded into World War I."

Banking Revolution

The development of modern banking institutions in early modern Europe, including the rise of the Medici bank, the Bank of Amsterdam (1609), and the Bank of England (1694), which facilitated commercial expansion.

Example: "The          provided the credit and financial infrastructure necessary for European commercial and colonial expansion."

Baroque Art

An elaborate and dramatic artistic style that flourished in the 17th century, often used by the Catholic Church and absolute monarchs to inspire awe and convey power and religious devotion.

Example: "         such as Bernini's sculptures and Rubens' paintings emphasized grandeur, emotion, and movement."

Battle of Britain

The aerial campaign (1940) in which the British Royal Air Force successfully defended Britain against sustained bombing by the German Luftwaffe, preventing a German invasion.

Example: "The          was a turning point in World War II, demonstrating that Nazi Germany could be resisted."

Battle of Stalingrad

A decisive World War II battle (1942-1943) in which Soviet forces defeated the German army in brutal urban combat, marking a major turning point on the Eastern Front.

Example: "The          was one of the bloodiest battles in history and marked the beginning of Germany's retreat on the Eastern Front."

Battle of the Somme

A catastrophic World War I battle (1916) on the Western Front that resulted in over one million casualties with minimal territorial gains, epitomizing the futility of trench warfare.

Example: "The          became a symbol of the senseless slaughter of World War I, with 60,000 British casualties on the first day alone."

Battle of Verdun

A prolonged World War I battle (1916) between French and German forces lasting ten months with approximately 700,000 casualties, symbolizing French determination and the war's devastating attrition.

Example: "The          embodied the strategy of attrition, as Germany sought to 'bleed France white' through relentless combat."

Battle of Waterloo

The final defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte on June 18, 1815, by British and Prussian forces in present-day Belgium, ending the Napoleonic Wars and leading to Napoleon's exile to Saint Helena.

Example: "The          ended Napoleon's Hundred Days and restored the Bourbon monarchy to France."

Beer Hall Putsch

Adolf Hitler's failed attempt to seize power in Munich in November 1923, which led to his imprisonment and the writing of Mein Kampf, and taught him to pursue power through legal means.

Example: "The failure of the          convinced Hitler that he needed to gain power through elections rather than violent revolution."

Bentham, Jeremy

English philosopher (1748-1832) who founded utilitarianism, the ethical theory that actions should be judged by their ability to produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number.

Example: "        's utilitarian philosophy influenced 19th-century social and legal reforms in Britain."

Berlin Airlift

A massive Western operation (1948-1949) to supply West Berlin by air after the Soviet Union blockaded all land and water routes to the city, demonstrating Western resolve during the early Cold War.

Example: "The          delivered over two million tons of supplies to West Berlin and forced the Soviets to lift their blockade."

Berlin Conference

An 1884–1885 meeting of European powers that established rules for the colonial partition of Africa, formalizing the 'Scramble for Africa' without African representation.

Example: "The          set the guidelines for European claims to African territory, drawing borders with little regard for ethnic or cultural boundaries."

Berlin Conference (1884-1885)

A meeting of European powers that established rules for the partition of Africa, requiring nations to effectively occupy claimed territories, accelerating the Scramble for Africa.

Example: "The          divided Africa among European powers with no regard for existing ethnic or political boundaries."

Berlin Wall

A fortified barrier dividing East and West Berlin from 1961 to 1989, symbolizing the Cold War division between communist and democratic Europe.

Example: "The fall of the          in November 1989 became the most iconic symbol of the end of the Cold War."

Bessemer Process

A method of mass-producing steel cheaply by blowing air through molten iron, developed in the 1850s, which was essential to the Second Industrial Revolution and modern infrastructure.

Example: "The          made steel production affordable, enabling the construction of railroads, bridges, and skyscrapers."

Bill of Rights (English, 1689)

A landmark English law that limited the power of the monarchy, guaranteed parliamentary supremacy, and protected individual rights such as free elections and freedom from cruel punishment.

Example: "The English          established that the monarch could not suspend laws or levy taxes without Parliament's consent."

Bismarck, Otto von

The Prussian statesman who served as Minister-President of Prussia and first Chancellor of the German Empire, orchestrating German unification through wars and diplomacy.

Similar definitions: Iron Chancellor

Example: "         used Realpolitik and 'blood and iron' to unite the German states under Prussian leadership by 1871."

Bismarck's Alliance System

The complex network of treaties and alliances created by Otto von Bismarck after German unification to isolate France and maintain peace in Europe, including the Triple Alliance and the Reinsurance Treaty.

Example: "         kept France diplomatically isolated but unraveled after his dismissal, contributing to the alliance system that led to World War I."

Black Death

A devastating plague pandemic (1347-1351) that killed roughly one-third of Europe's population, disrupting feudal society, creating labor shortages, and contributing to the decline of serfdom in Western Europe.

Example: "The          profoundly altered European society by reducing the labor supply and empowering surviving peasants."

Blanc, Louis

French socialist (1811-1882) who advocated government-funded workshops to provide employment for workers, briefly implemented during the Revolution of 1848 before being shut down.

Example: "        's national workshops experiment during the 1848 Revolution represented an early attempt at state-sponsored employment."

Blitz

The sustained German bombing campaign against British cities (1940-1941) during World War II, which failed to break British morale or force surrender.

Example: "The          devastated London and other British cities but strengthened rather than weakened British resolve."

Blitzkrieg

A German military strategy meaning 'lightning war,' combining rapid tank advances, motorized infantry, and air support to overwhelm enemies before they could organize a defense.

Example: "Germany's          tactics led to the swift conquest of Poland in 1939 and France in 1940."

Blood and Iron

A phrase associated with Otto von Bismarck's 1862 speech to the Prussian parliament, expressing his belief that the unification of Germany would be achieved through military force and strong leadership, not parliamentary debate.

Example: "Bismarck's '        ' speech signaled his willingness to use war as a tool of German unification."

Boer War

A conflict (1899-1902) between Britain and the Boer republics of southern Africa, which exposed the costs and moral controversies of imperialism and foreshadowed 20th-century guerrilla warfare.

Example: "The          damaged Britain's international reputation due to its use of concentration camps against Boer civilians."

Bolsheviks

The radical Marxist faction led by Vladimir Lenin that seized power in Russia during the October Revolution of 1917 and established the Soviet Union.

Example: "The          promised 'Peace, Land, and Bread' to gain popular support for their overthrow of the Provisional Government."

Bourbons

A European royal dynasty that ruled France from 1589 to 1792 and was briefly restored after Napoleon's fall (1814-1830), also ruling Spain and parts of Italy.

Example: "The          were restored to the French throne after Napoleon's defeat but were overthrown again in the Revolution of 1830."

Bourgeois Monarchy

The French regime under King Louis-Philippe (r. 1830-1848), called the 'citizen king,' whose rule favored the wealthy middle class and was overthrown in the Revolution of 1848.

Example: "The          of Louis-Philippe satisfied the upper bourgeoisie but ignored the demands of workers and republicans."

Bourgeoisie

The middle class of merchants, manufacturers, and professionals who gained economic power but initially lacked political influence, central to Marxist class analysis.

Example: "Marx argued that the          exploited the working class by controlling the means of production."

Boxer Protocol

The 1901 agreement imposed on China after the Boxer Rebellion, requiring China to pay large indemnities and accept foreign troops on Chinese soil, deepening Western imperial control.

Example: "The          further weakened Chinese sovereignty and intensified resentment against Western imperialism."

Boxer Rebellion

An anti-foreign uprising in China (1899-1901) suppressed by an international military coalition including major European powers, which further demonstrated Western imperial dominance in Asia.

Example: "European powers used the          as a pretext to increase their influence and extract concessions from China."

Brandt, Willy

West German Chancellor (1969-1974) who pursued Ostpolitik, a policy of engagement with East Germany and Eastern Europe, and symbolically knelt at the Warsaw Ghetto memorial.

Example: "        's Ostpolitik represented a dramatic shift in West Germany's approach to the communist East."

Brezhnev Doctrine

The Soviet policy declared in 1968 that the USSR would intervene militarily in any socialist country where communist rule was threatened, used to justify the invasion of Czechoslovakia.

Example: "The          was used to justify the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia during the Prague Spring."

Burke, Edmund

Anglo-Irish political thinker (1729-1797) and father of modern conservatism, who criticized the French Revolution in Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), arguing for gradual reform rather than radical change.

Example: "         argued that the French Revolution's radical break with tradition would lead to tyranny rather than liberty."

Calvinism

A Protestant theological system founded by John Calvin emphasizing predestination, the sovereignty of God, and strict moral discipline in religious communities.

Example: "         spread from Geneva to influence Reformed churches in France, the Netherlands, Scotland, and England."

Capitalism

An economic system based on private ownership of the means of production, free markets, and profit-driven enterprise.

Similar definitions: free enterprise, market economy

Example: "The rise of          during the Industrial Revolution transformed European economies from agrarian to industrial."

Carbonari

Secret revolutionary societies in early 19th-century Italy that sought to overthrow conservative regimes and promote Italian unification and constitutional government.

Example: "The          organized uprisings against Austrian rule in Italy, laying the groundwork for the Risorgimento."

Carlsbad Decrees

Repressive measures enacted in 1819 by the German Confederation under Metternich's influence to suppress liberal and nationalist movements by censoring the press and monitoring universities.

Example: "The          reflected Metternich's determination to suppress nationalist and liberal agitation in the German states."

Cartography

The science and art of mapmaking, which advanced significantly during the Age of Exploration as Europeans charted new territories and trade routes.

Example: "Improvements in          allowed navigators to create more accurate maps, facilitating European exploration and colonization."

Castiglione, Baldassare

Italian Renaissance author of The Book of the Courtier (1528), which described the ideal qualities of a Renaissance gentleman, including education, grace, and skill in arts and war.

Example: "         outlined the concept of the well-rounded 'Renaissance man' in his influential guide to courtly behavior."

Catherine the Great

Empress of Russia (r. 1762-1796) who expanded Russian territory, modernized administration, and corresponded with Enlightenment philosophers, but ultimately strengthened serfdom and autocratic rule.

Example: "         embraced Enlightenment rhetoric but reinforced the power of the Russian nobility at the expense of serfs."

Catholic Emancipation

The process by which Catholics in Britain and Ireland gained civil and political rights, culminating in the Roman Catholic Relief Act of 1829, which allowed Catholics to sit in Parliament.

Example: "         removed centuries-old legal disabilities against Catholics in Britain, though discrimination persisted."

Cavour, Camillo di

Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont who used diplomacy, economic modernization, and alliance with France to engineer the unification of Italy in the 1850s-1860s.

Example: "         skillfully used diplomacy and war to unite northern Italy under the House of Savoy."

Central Powers

The World War I alliance consisting primarily of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria, opposed to the Allied Powers.

Example: "The          faced a two-front war in Europe and were ultimately defeated by 1918."

Cesare Beccaria

Italian Enlightenment thinker (1738-1794) whose work On Crimes and Punishments (1764) argued against torture and capital punishment and advocated for proportional sentencing and criminal justice reform.

Example: "        's ideas about criminal justice reform influenced enlightened despots and modern legal systems."

Charles I

King of England (r. 1625-1649) whose conflicts with Parliament over taxation and religion led to the English Civil War; he was tried and executed for treason, the first European monarch to be publicly executed by his own subjects.

Example: "The execution of          demonstrated that a king could be held accountable to the law and the people."

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor (r. 1519-1556) and King of Spain who ruled a vast empire but struggled to contain the Protestant Reformation and faced constant wars against France and the Ottoman Empire.

Example: "         tried unsuccessfully to maintain Catholic unity in the Holy Roman Empire, ultimately accepting the Peace of Augsburg."

Charter 77

A Czechoslovak human rights document published in 1977 that criticized the government for failing to uphold human rights, becoming a rallying point for dissidents including future president Vaclav Havel.

Example: "         demonstrated that intellectual dissent could challenge communist authority even in repressive states."

Chartism

A British working-class movement (1838-1857) that demanded political reforms including universal male suffrage, secret ballots, and annual parliamentary elections through the People's Charter.

Example: "Although          failed in its immediate goals, many of its demands were eventually adopted in later reform acts."

Chernobyl

A catastrophic nuclear reactor explosion in Soviet Ukraine in 1986 that spread radioactive contamination across Europe, exposing the dangers of Soviet secrecy and contributing to Gorbachev's policy of glasnost.

Example: "The          disaster undermined confidence in the Soviet system and accelerated demands for transparency."

Christian Humanism

A Renaissance intellectual movement that applied humanist principles of classical learning and textual analysis to the study of Christianity, seeking to reform the Church through education and scholarship.

Similar definitions: Northern Renaissance humanism

Example: "Erasmus exemplified          by using his knowledge of Greek to produce a more accurate edition of the New Testament."

Churchill, Winston

British Prime Minister during World War II (1940-1945) whose leadership and oratory rallied Britain during the Blitz, and who later coined the term 'Iron Curtain' to describe the Cold War division of Europe.

Example: "        's wartime speeches inspired British resistance and became iconic expressions of determination against tyranny."

Civic Humanism

A Renaissance philosophy emphasizing active participation in civic life and republican government, drawing on classical Roman and Greek ideals of citizenship and public virtue.

Example: "Florentine thinkers promoted          by arguing that educated citizens had a duty to serve the public good."

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

A 1790 French Revolutionary law that reorganized the Catholic Church in France, requiring clergy to swear an oath of loyalty to the state, creating a deep rift between the Revolution and the Church.

Example: "The          alienated many French Catholics and turned the Church into an opponent of the Revolution."

Classical Liberalism

A political ideology emphasizing individual rights, limited government, free markets, and constitutional protections against state power.

Example: "         influenced the framers of constitutions across Europe, promoting protections for life, liberty, and property."

Clemenceau, Georges

French Prime Minister during World War I and at the Paris Peace Conference, who demanded harsh terms against Germany in the Treaty of Versailles to ensure French security.

Example: "         insisted on heavy reparations and territorial losses for Germany, prioritizing French security above all else."

Colbert, Jean-Baptiste

French finance minister under Louis XIV who implemented mercantilist economic policies, promoting domestic manufacturing, establishing tariffs, and expanding the French colonial empire to increase state revenue.

Example: "        's mercantilist policies aimed to make France economically self-sufficient and fund Louis XIV's wars."

Cold War

The geopolitical rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union from approximately 1947 to 1991, characterized by ideological conflict, nuclear arms race, and proxy wars without direct military confrontation.

Example: "The          divided Europe into Western democratic and Eastern communist blocs separated by the Iron Curtain."

Collectivization

Stalin's policy of forcing Soviet peasants to give up their private farms and join large state-run collective farms (kolkhozes), which caused widespread resistance and a devastating famine, particularly in Ukraine.

Example: "         destroyed the kulak class and caused millions of deaths through famine and repression."

Columbian Exchange

The widespread transfer of plants, animals, diseases, culture, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World following Columbus's voyages beginning in 1492.

Example: "The          brought crops like potatoes and maize to Europe while introducing devastating diseases like smallpox to the Americas."

Combination Acts

British laws passed in 1799-1800 that prohibited workers from forming trade unions or engaging in collective bargaining, repealed in 1824 under pressure from the growing labor movement.

Example: "The          attempted to suppress worker organization during the early Industrial Revolution."

Commercial Revolution

The expansion of trade, banking, and commerce in Europe from the 16th to 18th centuries, driven by colonial expansion, new trade routes, and the growth of capitalism and joint-stock companies.

Example: "The          transformed Europe's economy from feudal agriculture to a market-based system centered on international trade."

Committee of Public Safety

The executive body that governed France during the most radical phase of the French Revolution (1793-1794), led by Robespierre, which implemented the Reign of Terror to defend the Republic against internal and external enemies.

Example: "The          exercised near-dictatorial power, sending thousands of suspected enemies of the Revolution to the guillotine."

Common Market

The European Economic Community (EEC), established by the Treaty of Rome in 1957, which created a common market among six Western European nations by eliminating tariffs and promoting free movement of goods, labor, and capital.

Similar definitions: European Economic Community (EEC)

Example: "The          promoted economic integration in Western Europe and laid the foundation for the European Union."

Communism

A political and economic ideology advocating for classless society, collective ownership of the means of production, and the abolition of private property, as theorized by Karl Marx.

Example: "The spread of          after World War II led to the establishment of Soviet-aligned governments across Eastern Europe."

Communist Manifesto

A political pamphlet written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in 1848 that outlined the theory of class struggle, predicted the overthrow of capitalism by the proletariat, and called for a communist revolution.

Example: "The          famously declared that 'the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.'"

Concert of Europe

The post-Napoleonic diplomatic system established at the Congress of Vienna in which major European powers cooperated to maintain peace, suppress revolution, and preserve the balance of power.

Example: "The          maintained relative stability in Europe from 1815 until the revolutions of 1848 challenged its conservative order."

Concordat of 1801

An agreement between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII that reconciled the French government with the Catholic Church, recognizing Catholicism as the majority faith while maintaining state control over Church affairs.

Example: "The          healed the rift between France and the papacy caused by the Revolution while keeping the Church subordinate to the state."

Congress of Berlin (1878)

An international conference that revised the Treaty of San Stefano after the Russo-Turkish War, reducing Russian influence in the Balkans and recognizing the independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania.

Example: "The          attempted to stabilize the Balkans but created lasting resentments that contributed to World War I."

Congress of Vienna

The 1814–1815 diplomatic assembly that reorganized Europe after the Napoleonic Wars, restoring monarchies, redrawing borders, and establishing a balance of power among great powers.

Example: "The          was dominated by Metternich of Austria and sought to suppress the revolutionary ideals spread by Napoleon."

Congress System

A series of international meetings among the great European powers after the Congress of Vienna to preserve the post-Napoleonic order, suppress revolution, and maintain the balance of power.

Example: "The          attempted to maintain stability in Europe but gradually broke down over disagreements about intervention."

Conquistadors

Spanish soldiers and explorers who conquered indigenous civilizations in the Americas during the 16th century, motivated by gold, glory, and the spread of Christianity.

Example: "The         , such as Cortés and Pizarro, destroyed the Aztec and Inca empires and claimed vast territories for Spain."

Conservatism

A political philosophy favoring traditional institutions, gradual change, and suspicion of radical reform, prominent in post-Napoleonic Europe under leaders like Metternich.

Example: "         dominated European politics after 1815 as monarchies sought to prevent the spread of revolutionary and liberal ideas."

Constitutional Monarchy

A system of government in which a monarch's powers are limited by a constitution and laws, sharing authority with an elected legislature.

Example: "England's Glorious Revolution of 1688 established a          in which Parliament held supreme legislative authority."