AP Music Theory Vocabulary

12-bar blues progression

Typically comprises three phrases of four bars each. The first phrase is entirely tonic harmony (I). The second phrase contains two bars of subdominant (IV) and two bars of tonic (I). The final phrase begins with one bar of dominant (V) followed by one bar of subdominant (IV) and two bars of tonic (I). The third phrase may or may not end with a turnaround.

Example: "Robert Johnson's 'Cross Road Blues' exemplifies the         , cycling through tonic, subdominant, and dominant harmonies across three four-bar phrases, with the final phrase's V–IV–I motion creating a distinctive sense of resolution before the turnaround."

16-bar blues progression

A variation on the 12-bar blues progression. Typically composed of four four-bar phrases, usually two iterations of tonic, followed by subdominant and dominant. The final phrase may or may not end with a turnaround.

Example: "Some early boogie-woogie piano pieces expand the standard blues form into a         , doubling the opening tonic phrase to eight bars before introducing the subdominant and dominant sections, giving the melody more room to develop before cadencing."

A tempo

In time (i.e. the performer should return to the stable tempo, such as after an accelerando or ritardando); also may be found in combination with other terms such as a tempo giusto (in strict time) or a tempo di menuetto (at the speed of a minuet).

Example: "In Chopin's Nocturne in E-flat major, Op. 9, No. 2, after the expressive rubato passages, the composer marks          to signal that the performer must return to the original pulse before the next ornamented phrase begins."

AABA form

Also called 32-bar song form. AABA consists of at least four sections. It begins by repeating two strophes, moving to a contrasting bridge section, and then repeating the primary strophe again. AABA forms typically then include another repetition of BA, making the entire form AABABA.

Example: "Gershwin's 'I Got Rhythm' follows         , presenting the catchy eight-bar A section twice, contrasting it with a harmonically restless B section (bridge) built on a cycle-of-fifths progression, and then returning to the A section before repeating BA to close the chorus."

Absent tonic

Occurs when the tonic is never actually sounded as a harmony during the song, but is still implied through the melody or through the use of conventional harmonic progressions.

Example: "In certain jazz standards, the tonic chord is an         —the harmony never actually lands on a root-position I chord, yet the listener infers the key of C major from the surrounding ii–V motion and the melodic emphasis on scale degree 1."

Accent cymbals

Cymbals ranging in size (6–18” diameters are common) and thickness. Some have shapes and contours unlike other cymbals or are augmented with rivets or large holes. Depending on size, contour, and playing technique, these can produce a variety of crashing, splashing, sizzling, and barking sounds.

Example: "In a jazz big band chart, the drummer may use          of varying sizes—a small 8-inch splash for crisp stabs and a larger 16-inch china for heavier orchestral hits—to punctuate brass sforzando accents without overpowering the ensemble."

Acciaccato

Broken down, crushed; the sounding of the notes of a chord not quite simultaneously, but from bottom to top.

Example: "In Domenico Scarlatti's keyboard sonatas, the performer often realizes a chord         , rapidly rolling the notes from the lowest to the highest so that the attack retains rhythmic precision while the resonance of the full harmony blooms immediately afterward."

Accidental

A symbol that alters a pitch, such as the sharp (♯), flat (♭), and natural (♮) symbols.

Example: "When Beethoven introduces F-sharp in the opening theme of his Piano Sonata in C major, Op. 53 ('Waldstein'), the sharp          immediately signals a chromatic color that draws the listener's ear away from the established diatonic framework."

Acoustic collection

A seven-note collection similar to the mixolydian mode but with fi (↑4̂); corresponds roughly to the lowest partials of the harmonic series.

Example: "Bartók frequently employs the          in his piano works, combining a raised fourth scale degree with a lowered seventh to evoke the harmonic series and create a sound that sits between the familiar Lydian and Mixolydian modes."

Active note

In tonal music, a note that has a tendency to move to a specific note in the following chord, usually a step up or down. Also called a "tendency tone.".

Example: "In a G dominant seventh chord resolving to C major, B (the leading tone) and F (the chordal seventh) are the         : B resolves upward by step to C, while F resolves downward to E, fulfilling the gravitational tendencies that define tonal voice leading."

Aeolian

A diatonic mode that follows the pattern W–H–W–W–H–W–W. This is like the natural minor scale. This scale can also be found by playing the white notes of the piano starting on A.

Example: "The opening melody of Sibelius's Violin Concerto in D minor is firmly rooted in the          mode, following the W–H–W–W–H–W–W pattern and avoiding the raised seventh that would characterize the harmonic minor scale."

Aeolian cadence

♭VI–♭VII–i, or A♭–B♭–Cmi in C minor. This schema implies the aeolian mode. Very frequently, the i chord is altered to be major, yielding a sequence of three major chords related by steps in the same direction. This progression, especially with a major I chord, is often associated with heroic themes in video games and movies.

Example: "The climax of many film scores by Hans Zimmer employs the          (♭VI–♭VII–i), landing on a major I chord to project heroic finality—the three root-position major chords moving stepwise upward convey triumph without the rhetoric of a traditional V–I authentic cadence."

Aeolian mode

The sixth mode of the major scale, identical to the natural minor scale. Pattern: W-H-W-W-H-W-W.

Example: "Simon and Garfunkel's 'The Sound of Silence' is often analyzed in the          on D, using the natural minor scale pattern (W-H-W-W-H-W-W) with no raised leading tone, lending the song its characteristically dark, modal color."

Aeolian shuttle

I–♭VII–♭VI–♭VII. This progression can be understood as a shuttle between i and ♭VI, with the intermediate ♭VIIs acting as passing chords.

Example: "In 'Hotel California' by the Eagles, the guitar progression oscillates through an          pattern (i–♭VII–♭VI–♭VII), the ♭VII chords functioning as passing harmonies that sustain the brooding, modal atmosphere across the verse."

After-beat fifths or octaves

Two consecutive weak-beat fifths or octaves in fourth species counterpoint; e.g., from two successive 9–8 suspensions.

Example: "When writing a fourth species counterpoint exercise with two consecutive 9–8 suspensions, the student must be careful to avoid         , since the octave resolutions on successive weak beats produce the effect of parallel perfect intervals even though they are separated in time."

Alt (Eng.), alt dom, or altered dominant

A jazz term which instructs chord-playing musicians such as a jazz pianist or jazz guitarist to perform a dominant (V7) chord with at least one (often both) altered (sharpened or flattened) 5th or 9th.

Example: "In a jazz ii–V–I progression in C major, a pianist may voice the G7 chord as an alt dom—raising the fifth to D-sharp and flattening the ninth to A-flat—creating a maximally dissonant sound that intensifies the pull toward the tonic Cmaj7."

Alternative path

A technique of internal phrase expansion. It occurs when new material causes a phrase to deviate from its expected trajectory toward the cadence. These deviations may be permanent ("reroutes") or temporary ("detours").

Example: "In the recapitulation of Beethoven's Piano Sonata Op. 13 ('Pathétique'), the theme takes an          at the moment of expected cadence, detouring through a brief chromatic digression before finally arriving at the perfect authentic cadence several bars later."

Alto

The second-highest voice part in SATB style, written in the treble clef staff with a down-stem; its generally accepted range is G₃–D₅.

Example: "In a Bach four-part chorale, the          voice is written in the treble clef with a down-stem and typically moves in contrary motion to the soprano, remaining within its range of G3–D5 while providing inner-voice support for the harmonic progression."

Alto clef

As a "C" clef, the alto clef shows that C₄ is the middle line of the staff by centering on it.

Example: "The viola reads music in the         , where middle C (C4) sits precisely on the middle line of the staff, allowing most of the instrument's range to be notated without requiring a large number of ledger lines."

American Standard Pitch Notation (ASPN)

Designates specific musical frequencies by combining a note name (such as C) with an octave designation (such as 4), creating a bipartite label (C₄).

Example: "When analyzing Beethoven's Symphony No. 5, a theorist might note that the famous opening motive begins on G4, using          to distinguish that specific G from G3 in the lower strings or G5 in the piccolo."

Anticipation

A two-note embellishing tone gesture in which a chord tone is heard early as a non-chord tone.

Example: "In the final cadence of a Bach chorale, the soprano often sings the tonic pitch as an          on the final eighth note of the penultimate bar, arriving on the note of resolution a full beat before the bass confirms it with the root-position I chord."

Applied chord

A chord from another key inserted into a new key, in order to tonicize a diatonic chord other than I.

Example: "In Mozart's Piano Sonata in G major, K. 283, the composer uses an         —an A7 (V7/IV)—to tonicize the D major chord momentarily, lending the IV chord a sense of local harmonic weight before the progression returns to the home key."

Appoggiatura

An embellishing tone often occurring on a strong beat that is approached by leap and left by step in the opposite direction.

Example: "In the opening melody of Haydn's 'Surprise' Symphony, the ornamental notes that fall on strong beats and resolve stepwise downward are         , lending each phrase an expressive dissonance that the resolution immediately relieves."

Archetype

Phrases that are "archetypal" or that follow an archetype are related to the sentence, the period, or one of the hybrid phrase-level forms.

Example: "The opening theme of Mozart's Symphony No. 40 in G minor conforms to a sentence         : a two-bar basic idea, its immediate repetition, and a four-bar continuation that fragments the motive and drives toward a half cadence."

Arco

The bow used for playing some string instruments (i.e. played with the bow, as opposed to pizzicato, in music for bowed instruments); normally used to cancel a pizzicato direction.

Example: "After an extended pizzicato passage in Bartók's String Quartet No. 4, the score marks          to instruct the performers to resume bowing, restoring the sustained, lyrical tone color that contrasts with the percussive plucked texture."

Aria

Self-contained piece for one voice usually with orchestral accompaniment (which may be provided by a pianist using an orchestral reduction).

Example: "The          'Un'aura amorosa' from Mozart's Così fan tutte is a self-contained piece for tenor voice with full orchestral accompaniment, showcasing the character Ferrando's lyrical range and the ornamental flexibility of the Mozartian vocal style."

Arpeggiating 6/4

A 6/4 chord that results from an arpeggiated bass line (e.g., if the bass line alternates between the root and fifth of the same chord).

Example: "In Beethoven's 'Moonlight' Sonata, the arpeggiated left-hand pattern in the first movement often produces an          sonority, as the bass alternates between the root and fifth of the prevailing harmony, creating a fluid, rocking accompaniment texture."

Arpeggio

A melodic, "horizontal" statement of a triadic harmony; in other words, each note of a triadic harmony played in succession (rather than simultaneously). Also referred to as a "broken chord.".

Example: "The opening of Beethoven's 'Moonlight' Sonata presents the C-sharp minor harmony as a continuous          in the right hand—root, third, and fifth stated in succession rather than simultaneously—producing a hypnotic, wave-like texture across three octaves."

Arpeggio, arpeggiato

Played like a harp (i.e. the notes of the chords are to be played quickly one after another instead of simultaneously); in music for piano, this is sometimes a solution in playing a wide-ranging chord whose notes cannot be played otherwise; arpeggios are frequently used as an accompaniment; see also broken chord.

Example: "When playing a wide ninth chord in a Romantic piano work, the performer may realize it arpeggiato, rolling from the lowest note upward in rapid succession so that the hand can comfortably span an interval that would otherwise be unplayable as a block chord."

Asymmetrical meter

A meter that divides measures into unequal groupings of beats or divisions, creating an uneven metrical pulse.

Example: "Bartók's 'Bulgarian Rhythm' from Mikrokosmos No. 115 is written in 3+2+3/8         , dividing the measure unevenly into groups of three, two, and three eighth notes to produce the characteristic limping pulse of certain Eastern European folk dances."

Augmented fourth

An interval of six semitones, equal to three whole steps. Enharmonically equivalent to the diminished fifth. Also known as the tritone. Abbreviated A4.

Example: "In a dominant seventh chord—such as G7 in the key of C—the interval between B and F is an          (tritone) spanning six semitones; this inherently unstable interval drives the chord's powerful tendency to resolve to the tonic."

Authentic cadence

A cadence with the harmonies V–I. The harmonies are typically in root position. Authentic cadences can be further distinguished by their melody note in the I chord: an authentic cadence ending on 1̂ in the melody is a perfect authentic cadence, while one with 3̂ or 5̂ in the melody is an imperfect authentic cadence.

Example: "The final cadence of Bach's Chorale 'Jesu, Joy of Man's Desiring' is a perfect         : the bass moves from the dominant to the tonic in root position while the soprano arrives on scale degree 1, providing a completely closed, conclusive ending."

Backbeat

An accent on beats 2 and 4 of a quadruple meter. Backbeats are common in jazz and pop styles.

Example: "In Little Richard's 'Tutti Frutti,' the snare drum's consistent          on beats 2 and 4 of each quadruple-meter bar provides the driving rhythmic foundation that distinguishes early rock and roll from the swing feel of earlier jazz styles."

Balanced binary form

A binary form (either simple or rounded) in which the tail end of the first reprise returns at the tail end of the second reprise.

Example: "Many of Scarlatti's keyboard sonatas are in         : the tail of the first reprise, originally in the dominant key, returns at the corresponding position in the second reprise transposed to the tonic, creating a satisfying sense of large-scale symmetry."

Ballabile

(from the Italian Ballabile meaning "danceable") In ballet, a dance performed by the corps de ballet. The term Grand ballabile is used if nearly all participants (including principal characters) of a particular scene in a full-length work perform a large-scale dance.

Example: "In Tchaikovsky's Swan Lake, the          sections involve the entire corps de ballet performing synchronized choreography, giving the broader ensemble a moment of equal prominence while the principal dancers temporarily step aside."

Bar, or measure

Unit of music containing a number of beats as indicated by a time signature; also the vertical bar enclosing it.

Example: "In a 3/4 time signature, each bar contains three quarter-note beats, as seen in the waltz movement of Brahms's Symphony No. 3, where the measure is the primary rhythmic unit around which melodic phrases are organized."

Baritone clef

As a "C" clef, the baritone clef shows that C₄ is the middle line of the staff by centering on it.

Example: "The         , a C clef centered on the top line of the staff, places C4 (middle C) there, allowing low male voices or bass instruments to be notated without the extreme ledger lines that would be required in the treble clef."

Bartók pizzicato

An instruction to string performers to play a pizzicato note to pull the string away from the fingerboard so that it snaps back percussively on the fingerboard.

Example: "In the third movement of Bartók's Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta, the string players execute          by pulling the string sharply away from the fingerboard, producing a loud snap that adds a percussive, aggressive edge to the texture."

Basic idea

Basic ideas are short units that are typically associated with beginnings. They don't usually end with cadences, and they often establish tonic. They are the first units we hear in a presentation, an antecedent, a consequent, and a compound basic idea.

Example: "The opening two bars of Mozart's Piano Sonata in F major, K. 332, constitute a         : a memorable melodic gesture that establishes F major firmly in root position and will serve as the recognizable seed for the phrase structures that follow."

Bass

The lowest of the standard four voice ranges (bass, tenor, alto, soprano); the lowest melodic line in a musical composition, often thought of as defining and supporting the harmony; in an orchestral context, the term usually refers to the double bass.

Example: "In Bach's four-part chorales, the          voice carries the harmonic foundation of the progression, and its motion from G to C in root position at a cadence unmistakably signals the V–I authentic cadence to the listener."

Bass (voice)

The lowest voice in SATB style, written in the bass clef staff with a down-stem; its generally accepted range is F₂–D₄.

Example: "The bass voice in a Bach chorale, written in the bass clef with a down-stem and ranging from F2 to D4, typically moves in contrary motion to the soprano and reinforces the root-position harmonies at every structural cadence."

Bass clef

As an "F" clef, the bass clef shows which line of the staff is F₃ by surrounding it with two dots.

Example: "The F3 line of the         —marked by the clef's two dots flanking the fourth line of the staff—serves as the reference point from which cellists, bassoonists, and left-hand pianists read and notate the lower register of their instruments."

Battement (Fr.)

Used in the 17th century to refer to ornaments consisting of two adjacent notes, such as trills or mordents.

Example: "In the ornament tables of François Couperin's harpsichord works, a battement is specified for notes that require a rapid alternation with the adjacent half step below, functioning analogously to a lower mordent in Baroque performance practice."

Beat

A pulse in music to which one can tap or clap along. A grouped hierarchy of beats forms a meter.

Example: "In Beethoven's Symphony No. 5, the conductor generally          four          per bar in the Allegro con brio first movement, with each quarter note representing one pulse, and the famous four-note motive fitting precisely into a single measure."

Becoming ⇒ (the process of)

The process of becoming is an analytical phenomenon that captures an in-time, analytical reinterpretation regarding a formal/phrasal unit's function, abbreviated with a rightward double arrow symbol (⇒). Examples include primary theme ⇒ transition, continuation ⇒ cadential, or suffix ⇒ transition.

Example: "In Beethoven's first movement sonata forms, the opening primary theme frequently undergoes a process of becoming ⇒ transition: what initially sounds like a stable theme gradually loses its thematic character, fragmenting and accelerating until it fulfills the transitional function of destabilizing the tonic and preparing the secondary theme."

Beginning

One of three formal functions (with the other two being middle and ending). Beginnings are often signaled by establishment of a new melody or repetition of the beginning of a previously heard melody, emphasis on tonic harmony (especially root position), a melody that opens up musical space by ascending, a statement of a motive that is developed through the remainder of the phrase.

Example: "The opening of Haydn's 'Clock' Symphony fulfills a clear          function: the theme enters in root-position G major, ascends in range to open musical space, and presents a distinctive 'ticking' motive that will be developed throughout the movement."

Binary form

A type of form that has two core sections. These sections are often called "reprises" because each is typically repeated. There are two main types of binary form: rounded and simple.

Example: "Bach's Minuet in G major from the Anna Magdalena Notebook exemplifies         , dividing into two repeated reprises—the first moving from tonic to dominant, the second returning from dominant back to tonic—creating a balanced two-part structure."

Bird's eye

Slang for fermata, which instructs the performer to hold a note or chord as long as they wish or following cues from a conductor.

Example: "At the dramatic climax of Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 5 ('Emperor'), the soloist encounters a          (fermata) over a diminished seventh chord, holding the tension indefinitely until the conductor cues the orchestra to resume."

Bisbigliando

Whispering (i.e. a special tremolo effect on the harp where a chord or note is rapidly repeated at a low volume).

Example: "In Debussy's orchestral work La Mer, the harpist is occasionally instructed to play         , softly and rapidly repeating a chord to create a shimmering, whisper-like texture that evokes the sound of water across the strings."

Blue notes

Notes whose exact pitch sounds somewhere between the flat and regular versions of a scale degree, particularly 3̂ and 7̂.

Example: "In Billie Holiday's vocal interpretations, she frequently bends the third and seventh scale degrees to produce         —pitches that fall microntonally between the flat and natural versions of those degrees—giving her performances their distinctive expressive tension."

Bridge

A type of contrasting section that tends to function transitionally in the formal cycle. Bridges tend to emphasize non-tonic harmonies and commonly end on dominant harmony.

Example: "The          of the Beatles' 'Yesterday' shifts away from the tonic F major, emphasizing the relative minor and subdominant regions before arriving on a dominant seventh chord that creates the harmonic tension necessary to make the return of the verse feel like a satisfying resolution."

Broken chord

A chord in which the notes are not all played at once, but in some more or less consistent sequence. They may follow singly one after the other, or two notes may be immediately followed by another two, for example. See also arpeggio, which as an accompaniment pattern may be seen as a kind of broken chord; see Alberti bass.

Example: "The Alberti bass in the second movement of Mozart's Piano Sonata in C major, K. 545, breaks the accompanying left-hand chords into a low–high–middle–high pattern, creating a gentle, rocking          texture that supports the singing right-hand melody."

Cadence

A melodic and harmonic goal. In classical tonal music, cadence types include Perfect Authentic (PAC), Imperfect Authentic (IAC), and Half (HC).

Example: "At the end of the antecedent phrase in Haydn's 'Emperor' Quartet, a half          on the dominant chord creates an open, expectant feeling, while the consequent phrase closes with a perfect authentic          (PAC) that brings the period to a fully closed conclusion."

Cadential

One of the three common ending types. Its distinguishing characteristic is its bass line: mi–fa–sol–do (3̂–4̂–5̂–1̂), which may be elaborated with chromaticism.

Example: "In the first movement of Mozart's Piano Sonata in B-flat major, K. 333, the          subphrase features the characteristic bass motion mi–fa–sol–do in the lower voice, confirming the arrival of the authentic cadence with stepwise descent from 5̂ through 4̂ and 3̂ to the root."

Cadential 6/4

A common embellishment of the cadential V chord, in which the fifth of the V chord (re, 2̂) is replaced with the sixth (mi/me, 3̂) and the third (ti, 7̂) is replaced with the fourth (do, 1̂). The sixth and fourth form a 6/4 chord, hence its label. The cadential 6/4 resembles a I6/4 in its pitch content.

Example: "In the second movement of Beethoven's 'Pathétique' Sonata, the          appears before the final authentic cadence, sounding like a first-inversion tonic chord but functioning as an embellishment of the dominant—scale degrees 1̂ and 3̂ in the upper voice resolve down by step to 7̂ and 2̂ when the true V chord arrives."

Cadenza

A solo section, usually in a concerto or similar work, that is used to display the performer's technique, sometimes at considerable length.

Example: "The          in the first movement of Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 4 in G major is a theatrical display of the soloist's technique and interpretive creativity, beginning at the cadential 6/4 chord and ranging freely through the thematic material before the orchestra re-enters."

Cambiata

An ornamental tone following a principal tone by a skip up or down, usually of a third, and proceeding in the opposite direction by a step, not to be confused with changing tone.

Example: "In a Renaissance polyphonic motet, the alto voice may use a          figure, skipping down a third from E to C and then stepping back up to D, creating a characteristic zigzag motion that smoothly ornaments the underlying voice-leading line."

Canon or kanon (Ger.)

A theme that is repeated and imitated and built upon by other instruments with a time delay, creating a layered effect; see Pachelbel's Canon.

Example: "Pachelbel's Canon in D is perhaps the most familiar example of strict canonic writing, in which the second violin imitates the first violin's melody at an interval of one measure and a perfect fourth below, while the continuo bass repeats its ostinato pattern throughout."

Cantabile or cantando

In a singing style. In instrumental music, a style of playing that imitates the way the human voice might express the music, with a measured tempo and flexible legato.

Example: "Chopin's marking of cantabile at the opening of his Nocturne in B-flat minor, Op. 9, No. 1 directs the pianist to play the lyrical right-hand melody in a singing, expressive manner, imitating the sustained, flexible phrasing of a trained operatic voice."

Cantus mensuratus or cantus figuratus (Lat.)

Meaning respectively "measured song" or "figured song". Originally used by medieval music theorists, it refers to polyphonic song with exactly measured notes and is used in contrast to cantus planus.[2][3].

Example: "Medieval theorists distinguished the cantus mensuratus of Notre Dame polyphony—in which note values were precisely governed by rhythmic modes—from the free, unmeasured recitation of plainchant, marking a significant step in the development of rhythmic notation."

Change of register

In counterpoint, a type of consonant weak beat that steps in the opposite direction following a large leap.

Example: "In a first-species counterpoint exercise, if the lower voice leaps a tenth upward, a          may be employed in the upper voice, stepping down by step in the opposite direction on the following beat to smooth out the angular motion created by the large leap."

Chord factor

A note in a chord with a unique note name, named for its interval above the root when the chord is in root and simple position.

Example: "In the C major triad (C–E–G), E is the          named 'third' because, when the triad is arranged in root position and close spacing, it lies a third above the root C; altering this          to E-flat produces a C minor triad."

Chord substitution

Replacing a standard chord (i.e., within a harmonic schema) with a different chord. The substituted chord is typically identical in harmonic function to the standard chord, and often shares at least two notes with the standard chord.

Example: "In jazz reharmonization, a pianist might replace a G7 (V7) chord with a D-flat7 chord—a tritone substitution—because both chords share the same guide tones (F and B/C-flat) and the D-flat bass note descends by half step to the C tonic, intensifying the resolution."

Chord symbols

A system of naming chords that specifies the note name of the root, chord quality, and any alterations. Some basic symbols are given below as a quick reference, but for more detail, see the Chord Symbols chapter. chord quality chord symbol (for a chord with a root of C) major triad C minor triad Cmi, Cm, C- diminished triad Co, Cdim augmented triad C+, Caug dominant seventh chord C7 major seventh chord Cma7, C∆7, Cmaj7 minor seventh chord Cmi7, C-7, Cm7 half-diminished seventh chord Cø7, Cm7♭5,.

Example: "A jazz lead sheet for 'Autumn Leaves' uses          such as Ami7, D7, Gmaj7, and Cmaj7 to convey the ii–V–I progressions in both G major and E minor to chord-playing musicians, leaving the specific voicing and register to the performer's discretion."

Chordal seventh

Refers to the seventh above the root of a chord. For example, V⁷ in the key of C is spelled G-B-D-F; F is the chordal seventh.

Example: "In a V7 chord in the key of C major (G–B–D–F), F is the         ; according to standard voice-leading practice, this          should resolve downward by step to E when the chord progresses to the tonic triad."

Chorus

A core section of a popular song that is lyric-invariant and contains the primary lyrical material of the song. Chorus function is also typified by heightened musical intensity relative to the verse. Chorus sections are distinct from refrains, which are contained within a section.

Example: "The          of Adele's 'Rolling in the Deep' is lyric-invariant and musically intensified relative to the verse, maintaining identical text across each repetition while the full band texture and higher dynamic level mark it clearly as the primary emotional focal point of the song."

Chromatic

Relating in some sense to the chromatic scale. The term may be used to refer to notes that are outside the given key.

Example: "In Schubert's 'Der Erlkönig,' the repeated          neighbor tones in the piano accompaniment—notes foreign to the established D minor key—heighten the sense of urgency and supernatural dread that permeates the song."

Circle of fifths

A graphic that shows the relationship between major (and/or minor) key signatures by placing the key signatures around a circle in order of number of accidentals.

Example: "By moving clockwise around the          from C major, each successive key—G, D, A, E, B—adds one sharp to the key signature, a relationship that composers like Bach exploited in sequential passages that modulate through closely related keys."

Class

In set theory, a class is a group whose members are all equivalent in some sense—transposition, inversion, octave, enharmonic, etc.

Example: "In post-tonal set theory, the pitch          C, E, and G belong to the same set          as E, G-sharp, and B (both forming set          3-11), because the two collections are related by transposition and share the same interval-         vector."

Clausula vera

A contrapuntal cadence in which a perfect octave or unison is approached through contrary motion by step. One line will have re–do (2̂– 1̂) while the other has ti–do (7̂-1̂). This results in the sequence of harmonic intervals sixth–octave, tenth–octave, or third–unison.

Example: "The polyphonic cadence in a Renaissance mass setting often employs the         , with one voice moving from re to do (2̂–1̂) and another from ti to do (7̂–1̂) in contrary motion, converging on a perfect octave or unison to signal a clear formal boundary."

Clef

A symbol placed on the left side of a staff that indicates which notes are assigned to different lines and spaces.

Example: "When a French horn part is written in the treble         , the          placed at the beginning of each staff line tells the performer which pitch corresponds to each line and space, allowing the appropriate transposition to be calculated for the instrument."

Closing section

A large suffix in sonata-form works. The closing section is usually very stable and often consists of many V–I or IV–I motions confirming the local tonic.

Example: "In the exposition of Beethoven's Symphony No. 1 in C major, the          following the perfect authentic cadence in the secondary key confirms G major through a series of repeated V–I motions, reinforcing the new tonic before the exposition's repeat."

Coda

A concluding section added to the end of a musical form that provides a sense of finality. From Italian meaning 'tail'.

Example: "The          of Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 in C minor extends far beyond a simple formal wrap-up, introducing new thematic material and a dramatic change to C major, thereby transforming what might have been a brief tail into a triumphant concluding section."

Coda (classical)

A large suffix section occurring at the end of a work (or end of a movement within a multi-movement work), after the PAC that ends the piece’s core sections.

Example: "In the finale of Beethoven's Piano Sonata Op. 111, the coda extends well beyond the PAC that closes the theme and variations, entering a transcendent, trilled transformation of the theme that leaves the movement suspended above conventional formal boundaries."

Coda (pop)

A coda is a song-ending section that presents new material. Like outros, codas exhibit closing rhetoric.

Example: "The Beatles' 'Hey Jude' features one of the most famous codas in pop music history: after the last chorus, the 'Na-na-na' section introduces entirely new material with a repeating chant, exhibiting closing rhetoric that gradually fades out rather than providing a definitive harmonic conclusion."

Codetta

A type of suffix (external expansion). Codettas are usually medium length (for example, between 4 and 8 measures), they often occur at the end of a section within a piece, and they often feature repeated units. They may or may not contain a full phrase.

Example: "Following the perfect authentic cadence that concludes the exposition of Mozart's Piano Sonata in C major, K. 545, a brief          of four bars appears, reinforcing the dominant key with repeated tonic-dominant oscillations before the repeat sign."

Coll'ottava

With the addition of the octave note above or below the written note; abbreviated as col 8, coll' 8, and c. 8va.

Example: "A pianist reading a Liszt étude may encounter the marking          in the left hand, instructing them to double every notated bass note with its octave below, thickening the texture and enhancing the heroic, orchestral character of the passage."

Colla parte

Literally "with the part". An indication that another (written-out) part should be followed, i.e. accommodate the tempo, expression, phrasing, and possible rubato of the leading part. In vocal music, also expressed by colla voce.

Example: "In a Romantic opera, the orchestral strings might be marked          when accompanying a tenor's freely phrased recitative, meaning the players must watch and match the soloist's every nuance of tempo and expression rather than following the conductor strictly."

Colla voce

Literally "with the voice". An instruction, in a choral or orchestral part, that a vocal part should be followed, e.g., play the same notes as the vocal part and accommodate the tempo, expression, etc. of the vocalist.

Example: "During the climactic aria of a Verdi opera, the orchestral accompaniment is marked         , directing all the instrumentalists to follow the soprano's natural breathing and expressive pacing rather than maintaining a rigid tempo independent of her performance."

Color note

For modes in pop music, the color note is the pitch that distinguishes a mode from major (in the case of mixolydian/lydian) or from minor (in the case of dorian/phrygian).

Example: "In Mixolydian mode, the          that distinguishes it from the major scale is the lowered seventh degree (♭7̂): in G Mixolydian, the F-natural stands out against the expected F-sharp of G major, giving the mode its characteristic rock and folk flavor."

Coloratura

Coloration (i.e. elaborate ornamentation of a vocal line, or a soprano voice that is well-suited to such elaboration).

Example: "The Queen of the Night's aria 'Der Hölle Rache' from Mozart's Die Zauberflöte demands extraordinary          technique from the soprano, requiring her to execute rapid scales, arpeggios, and trills that ascend to high F6 while conveying the character's furious, vengeful text."

Colossale

Enormous, immense, colossal (notably used in the first movement of Prokofiev's second piano concerto).

Example: "Prokofiev marks the catastrophic climax of his Piano Concerto No. 2's first movement         , indicating that the massive, crashing cadenza should be played with overwhelming, almost superhuman force and grandeur."

Common time

The time signature 44: four beats per measure, each beat a quarter note (a crotchet) in length. 44 is often written on the musical staff as . The symbol is not a C as an abbreviation for common time, but a broken circle; the full circle at one time stood for triple time, 34.

Example: "Beethoven's Ode to Joy from Symphony No. 9 is written in          (4/4), with four quarter-note beats per measure, making the hymn-like theme easily conductable and singable for the massed chorus and orchestra."

Common-tone diminished seventh chord (CT°⁷)

A diminished seventh chord that, instead of having dominant function, is a neighbor chord that embellishes the chord that comes after it. The CT°⁷ has a common tone with the root of the following chord; all the other notes are a step away from a note in the following chord.

Example: "When Schubert prolongs a C major harmony by inserting a CT°⁷—for example, a C-sharp diminished seventh chord—he keeps C as a common tone in an inner voice while the remaining pitches (E-flat, G-flat, B-flat, enharmonically) resolve by step back to the C major sonority, embellishing it without changing the underlying harmonic function."

Comodo

Comfortable (i.e. at moderate speed); also, allegro comodo, tempo comodo, etc.

Example: "A tempo marking of          in a Brahms intermezzo suggests that the performer should adopt a comfortable, unhurried pace, avoiding both the breathlessness of Presto and the lethargy of Largo to achieve a natural, conversational flow."

Compound duple

A meter with two beats, each of which divides into three. The top number of a compound duple meter will always be "6". 6/8 is the most common compound duple meter, though 6/4 is also somewhat common.

Example: "The 'Barcarolle' from Offenbach's Tales of Hoffmann is written in 6/8, a          meter with two beats per measure each dividing into three eighth notes, producing the gentle, triple-subdivision rocking that evokes the motion of a gondola on water."

Compound form

Occurs when one form is composed of other smaller forms. For example, a period may be composed of two sentences, or one or more of a ternary form's sections may be composed of a binary form.

Example: "In a classical minuet and trio, the overall ternary form (Minuet–Trio–Minuet) is a          because each of the component minuet and trio sections is itself a self-contained binary form with its own two reprises."

Compound meter

A metric type in which the beat divides into three equal parts. Common examples: 6/8, 9/8, 12/8.

Example: "The first movement of Handel's 'Messiah' overture shifts into 12/8, a         , and the three-part subdivision of each beat gives the running passages their characteristic flowing, lilting quality that simple quadruple time could not achieve."

Compound quadruple

A meter with four beats, each of which divides into three. A time signature for compound quadruple will always have "12" as the top number. 12/8 is the most common compound quadruple meter.

Example: "The Pastoral Symphony (No. 6) by Beethoven uses 12/8          meter in its 'Storm' movement, with four main beats each dividing into three, allowing the rapid triplet figures to feel simultaneously agitated and metrically organized."

Compound ternary form

A type of ternary form where at least one of the form's parts (A, B, or the second A section) is composed of its own complete form (typically a binary form). The term "compound" can also be used to clarify that a single section contains a complete form. Compare with simple ternary form.

Example: "The da capo aria of Baroque opera exemplifies         : the A section is often itself a complete binary form, the contrasting B section provides a middle, and the return of the A section (da capo) completes the three-part structure."

Compound triple

A meter with three beats, each of which divides into three. The top number of a compound triple meter will always be "9". 9/8 is the most common compound triple meter.

Example: "The second movement of Brahms's Symphony No. 2 is written in 9/8          meter, with three main beats each subdividing into three eighth notes, giving the Adagio non troppo theme a lyrical, swaying quality that simple triple meter would not provide."

Consequent

A phrase consisting of a basic idea followed by a contrasting idea that ends with a strong cadence. It usually forms the second half of a phrase-level form.

Example: "In the main theme of Haydn's 'Emperor' Quartet, the          phrase echoes the basic idea of the antecedent but replaces the half cadence with a perfect authentic cadence on the tonic, creating the feeling of a question definitively answered."

Consonance

As an acoustic phenomenon, frequencies vibrating at whole-number ratios with one another; as a cultural phenomenon, perceived stability in a chord or interval.

Example: "The perfect fifth (C–G) is among the most acoustically stable         , as the two pitches vibrate at a 3:2 frequency ratio; this interval was considered so stable in medieval counterpoint that composers like Pérotin used it almost exclusively on strong beats."

Continuation

A subphrase that features a mix of any of the following: fragmentation, increase in harmonic rhythm, increase in surface rhythm, or sequences. Continuations end with a cadence and are usually found in the second half of a theme.

Example: "In the main theme of Mozart's Piano Sonata in G major, K. 283, the first half establishes tonic through a repeated basic idea, while the          follows immediately with increased harmonic rhythm, fragmentation of the opening motive, and a sequential descent that drives to the cadence."

Contrasting beginning

The contrasting beginning is like an antecedent without a cadence. It is a beginning part of a phrase-level form that consists of a basic idea followed by a contrasting idea, and it doesn't end with a cadence.

Example: "In a hybrid phrase form, the          presents a two-element opening—basic idea followed by contrasting idea—that does not conclude with a cadence, leaving the phrase open and requiring a continuation subphrase to carry it to its cadential goal."

Core bass pattern

A core bass pattern is the basic series of notes that defines a common progression. This series of notes may be embellished with other, less important notes, but the pattern is still recognizable because the basic series is still present.

Example: "The passacaglia ground bass in Purcell's 'Dido's Lament' is a recognizable         —a descending chromatic tetrachord from A-flat to E-flat in the bass—that repeats throughout the aria while the upper voices vary freely above it."

Core section (classical)

A formal category including both main sections (e.g., A, primary theme, refrain) and contrasting sections (e.g., B, C, D, secondary theme, episode, contrasting middle, development, digression). In contrast to auxiliary sections, core sections present the main musical material of a work and generally represent the bulk of a composition.

Example: "In a classical sonata form, the exposition, development, and recapitulation are all core sections because they present the primary thematic and harmonic content of the movement, as opposed to the optional slow introduction or coda, which serve auxiliary functions."

Counterpoint

A general term for music that involves multiple simultaneous and independent melodic lines. The term comes from the idea that each note (point) has another note against (counter to) it. This term can also refer specifically to a musical line added to a cantus firmus.

Example: "In the first movement of Bach's Two-Part Invention in C major, BWV 772, the two voices engage in strict         , each line maintaining its rhythmic and melodic independence while together articulating a coherent harmonic progression through imitation and contrary motion."

Crescendo

Getting gradually louder; sometimes represented in notated scores with a hairpin symbol.

Example: "In the famous          of the finale of Rossini's 'William Tell' Overture, the dynamic level rises gradually over many bars, beginning at pianissimo and swelling to fortissimo as new orchestral voices enter and the texture thickens, building to the exhilarating conclusion."

Crux

The moment when the tail end of the first reprise returns at the tail end of the second reprise of a binary or sonata form.

Example: "In a balanced binary form by Handel, the          occurs near the end of the second reprise, where the harmonic progression and melodic material align exactly with the tail of the first reprise—now transposed to the tonic—marking the moment at which the two reprises converge."