Chapter 17: Science and Commerce in Early Modern Europe

• Scientific Revolution was the beginning of a new era in European history in the 17th century   * Europeans started to challenge scientific thought
• There were several characteristics of the Scientific Revolution   * People started to understand the mathematical nature of the world around them   * Development of scientific institutions (labs, etc.)
• Early science was restricted to few universities and only available to the wealthy
• Patronage System   * Scientists of the time relied on wealthy patrons to support their work   * Patrons were ultimately in charge of deciding the direction that early science took
• Universities were social institutions   * Theology was the main reason
• Anatomy was introduced in the 16th century
• Universities weren’t properly equipped
• Academies were considered to be clubs for people who wanted to live in the ancient world   * Academies provided funding   * Academies allowed for discourse to develop amongst scientists
• Alchemy was an attempt at trying to change base metals into gold   * First to place emphasis on experimentation and technology
• Classical sources were the foundation for the Scientific Revolution
• Aristotelian Philosophy was used as a starting point for science
• Hermeticism meant that all objects shared a universal spirit that would eventually be revealed spontaneously
• Natural Philosophy was the attempt to explain the natural world
• Tycho Brahe discovered a nova and a comet which challenged Aristotelian paradigm
• Galileo Galilei declared that planets were roughly made out of the same materials as Earth   * Challenged the biblical view of the heavens   * Was tried and found guilty of Heresy
• Descartes   * Discourse on Method (1637)   * Was schooled in Aristotelian philosophy   * Rejected knowledge that was based upon probability   * Used “proofs” to support philosophical learning
• Some believed that one could only accept God upon proving his existence
• Newton used experimental philosophy (physics)   * Began with the natural world and then tried to explain it   * Used math to create models that were based on nature   * Expressed his observations in numerals   * Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687)   * Newton’s Three Laws of Motion
• Expansion of knowledge allowed for the concept that one can understand themselves by understanding nature and their place in it
• Commercial Revolution   * Development in new patterns of trade, colonization, and commodities that ended up increasing material luxuries for Europe   * First great commercial empire was the Dutch, followed by the English   * Three phases to the Commercial Revolution     * Precious Metal Trade (1440-1660)       * Began in Americas under Spanish leadership       * Eventually weakened the Dutch/English pirates & loss of control over trade routes       * Opened Americas for colonization and trade     * Spice Trade (1550-19th century)       * Europeans (Portuguese, Dutch, & English) exchanged precious metals for spices (Cinnamon, Pepper, Nutmeg, etc.)       * Started as bilateral trade     * Plantation System (1650-1800)   * Brought increasing wealth to Europe in form of goods and services
• Dutch became greatest European Economic Empire in 17th century   * Innovative techniques were used   * Rational Management   * Supportive cultural/social environment
• Rise of “Dutch Masters”   * Rise to power initially started in 30 Years War against Spain   * Good farmers and manufacturers   * Good traders
• Mercantile organization was normally controlled by the King, was easy to tax, and competition was managed by the states
• Mercantilist Theory   * Wealth of a nation had to do with the stocks of precious metals
• Euro-Asian trade started as a bilateral trade to deal with European consumer demands   * Dutch dominated spice trade in 1650
• Coffeehouses became extremely wealthy and popular in the 17th century
• Tea was popular across all levels of European society   * Became dietary staple within a generation   * Importation rose annually   * Introduction of opium led to triangular trade as it had started as bilateral trade
• Unlimited demand for sugar (high prices)
• African slaves were originally imported for gold and silver mines
• Tobacco became popular under Dutch marketing and distribution
• Plantation systems set a pattern for development based on trade and not conquest
• North America’s government developed in response to Bacon’s Rebellion
• Wars of Commerce   * Europeans were in direct competition and conflict over commerce due to Zero-sum paradigm
• Mercantile Wars were a series of three wars that the English and Dutch fought over the control of commerce
• Wars of Louis XIV took place as Louis XIV wanted to expand territory claims to the south and the east
• War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714)   * Treaty of Utrecht (1713-1714)
• Colonial wars happened due to the growth of consumer goods from America   * Seven Years’ War

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