Chapter 17: Science and Commerce in Early Modern Europe
- Scientific Revolution was the beginning of a new era in European history in the 17th century
- Europeans started to challenge scientific thought
- There were several characteristics of the Scientific Revolution
- People started to understand the mathematical nature of the world around them
- Development of scientific institutions (labs, etc.)
- Early science was restricted to few universities and only available to the wealthy
- Patronage System
- Scientists of the time relied on wealthy patrons to support their work
- Patrons were ultimately in charge of deciding the direction that early science took
- Universities were social institutions
- Theology was the main reason
- Anatomy was introduced in the 16th century
- Universities weren’t properly equipped
- Academies were considered to be clubs for people who wanted to live in the ancient world
- Academies provided funding
- Academies allowed for discourse to develop amongst scientists
- Alchemy was an attempt at trying to change base metals into gold
- First to place emphasis on experimentation and technology
- Classical sources were the foundation for the Scientific Revolution
- Aristotelian Philosophy was used as a starting point for science
- Hermeticism meant that all objects shared a universal spirit that would eventually be revealed spontaneously
- Natural Philosophy was the attempt to explain the natural world
- Tycho Brahe discovered a nova and a comet which challenged Aristotelian paradigm
- Galileo Galilei declared that planets were roughly made out of the same materials as Earth
- Challenged the biblical view of the heavens
- Was tried and found guilty of Heresy
- Descartes
- Discourse on Method (1637)
- Was schooled in Aristotelian philosophy
- Rejected knowledge that was based upon probability
- Used “proofs” to support philosophical learning
- Some believed that one could only accept God upon proving his existence
- Newton used experimental philosophy (physics)
- Began with the natural world and then tried to explain it
- Used math to create models that were based on nature
- Expressed his observations in numerals
- Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687)
- Newton’s Three Laws of Motion
- Expansion of knowledge allowed for the concept that one can understand themselves by understanding nature and their place in it
- Commercial Revolution
- Development in new patterns of trade, colonization, and commodities that ended up increasing material luxuries for Europe
- First great commercial empire was the Dutch, followed by the English
- Three phases to the Commercial Revolution
- Precious Metal Trade (1440-1660)
- Began in Americas under Spanish leadership
- Eventually weakened the Dutch/English pirates & loss of control over trade routes
- Opened Americas for colonization and trade
- Spice Trade (1550-19th century)
- Europeans (Portuguese, Dutch, & English) exchanged precious metals for spices (Cinnamon, Pepper, Nutmeg, etc.)
- Started as bilateral trade
- Plantation System (1650-1800)
- Brought increasing wealth to Europe in form of goods and services
- Dutch became greatest European Economic Empire in 17th century
- Innovative techniques were used
- Rational Management
- Supportive cultural/social environment
- Rise of “Dutch Masters”
- Rise to power initially started in 30 Years War against Spain
- Good farmers and manufacturers
- Good traders
- Mercantile organization was normally controlled by the King, was easy to tax, and competition was managed by the states
- Mercantilist Theory
- Wealth of a nation had to do with the stocks of precious metals
- Euro-Asian trade started as a bilateral trade to deal with European consumer demands
- Dutch dominated spice trade in 1650
- Coffeehouses became extremely wealthy and popular in the 17th century
- Tea was popular across all levels of European society
- Became dietary staple within a generation
- Importation rose annually
- Introduction of opium led to triangular trade as it had started as bilateral trade
- Unlimited demand for sugar (high prices)
- African slaves were originally imported for gold and silver mines
- Tobacco became popular under Dutch marketing and distribution
- Plantation systems set a pattern for development based on trade and not conquest
- North America’s government developed in response to Bacon’s Rebellion
- Wars of Commerce
- Europeans were in direct competition and conflict over commerce due to Zero-sum paradigm
- Mercantile Wars were a series of three wars that the English and Dutch fought over the control of commerce
- Wars of Louis XIV took place as Louis XIV wanted to expand territory claims to the south and the east
- War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714)
- Treaty of Utrecht (1713-1714)
- Colonial wars happened due to the growth of consumer goods from America
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