Knowt
Chapter 2: Early Greece 2500-500 B.C.E
Greece is a stark world of mountains and sea
Only 10 percent of Greece is flat
Climate is uncertain, constantly threatening farmers with failure
Temperature remains fairly constant while rainfall varies year to year
Wheat, barley, and beans were staples of Greek life
Farmers and townspeople ate chickpeas, lentils, and bread supplemented with olive oil, wine, and cheese
Rare holidays supplied ordinary fold with fish or mutton
Archaeologists have recognized three distinct late Bronze age cultures since the late nineteenth century which flourished in the Mediterranean before the end of the 12th century B.C.E.
The Cycladic
The Minoan
The Mycenaean
The Cyclades
First culture appeared on the Cyclades (islands strewn across bottom of Aegean from the Greek mainland to coast of Asia Minor)
Local perfected techniques of working metals; methods that traveled north to the mainland and south to Crete
Most impressive remains of Cycladic culture are marble figurines, found in large numbers in graves on mainland
Many of the largest Cycladic settlements weren’t fortified
Cycladic religion focused on female deities
Knowledge of Minoan civilization surfaced in the modern world in 1899
Minoan Crete was a strongly stratified system in which the peasantry paid tribute in olive oil and other produce
Taxes flowed to local and regional palaces
The system wasn’t militaristic
Both men and women had important roles in religious and public life
Wave of destruction engulfed all Cretan cities except Knossos around 1450 B.C.E. with cause of destruction being unknown
A new and powerful warrior civilization rose on the Peloponnesus at Mycenae around 1600 B.C.E.
Mycenaean
Myceneans adopted artisanal and architectural techniques from neighboring cultures (especially Crete and Hittites)
Incorporated techniques into a distinctive tradition of their own
Palaces were strongly walled fortresses
Controlled production of bronze, weaving of woolen cloth, and the extensive maritime trade in agricultural produce regions
Adopted Linear A script of Crete; transformed it to their own language, known as Linear B
Mycenaean domination didn’t last long
Several mainland and island fortresses and cities were sacked and destroyed around 1200 B.C.E.
Centralized government, literacy, and urban life disappeared from Greece for more than 300 years
Dark Age
Mycenaean Greece self-destructed
Overpopulation
Risks of overspecialization in cash crops
Rivalry among states
Disintegration of the Hittite Empire
Near-collapse of Egyptian Empire
Fragility of agrarian base
Bands of northerners moved into the Peloponnesus while other Greeks migrated out from the mainland to the islands and the cost of Asia Minor
Tribal groups merged with indigenous population
Greeks established colonies in what is today Ukraine, Italy, North Africa, Spain, and France
Greeks began practicing cremation around the middle of the 11th century B.C.E.
Speakers of Greek inherited distant memories of an original highly organized urban civilization grafted onto the rural aristocratic warrior society of the Dark Age
Gave all Greek-speaking inhabitants of Mediterranean world common myths, values, and identity
Descendants of the farmers and herdsmen of Homer’s Dark Age brought forth a revolution in political organization, artistic traditions, intellectual values, and social structures
Major increase in population was the first sign of radical change in Greece
Framework for first flowering of Greek culture was set by multiplicity of political and social forms developing in Archaic Age
Two forms of political organization developed in response to the population explosion in 8th century B.C.E.
Ethnos: large territorial units called in which people lived
People lived in villages and small scattered across wide region
Ethnos was governed by an oligarchy made up of major landowners
Polis: a more innovative form of political organization which developed on shores of the Aegean and on the islands
Villages clustered around fortifications
Both protective structures and cult centers for specific deities
Rapid population growth led to fusion of villages and formation of real towns
Each town was independent
Each ruled by a monarch or an oligarchy
Each controlled surrounding region
Inhabitants were on equal footing with townspeople
Rulers might summon an assembly of free males of community to participate in or to witness the decision-making progress at times of political or military crisis
General model of polis might have been borrowed from eastern Mediterranean Phoenicians (merchant society responsible for much of the contact Greeks had with the outside world in 8th century B.C.E.)
Phoenicians were the source of reintroduction of writing
Political power was not the monopoly of the aristocracy with the polis
Gradual expansion of politically active population resulted mostly from the demands of warfare
Democratization of war led to democratization of political life
Growing demands of common people along with demographic expansion and economic changes created enormous social and political tensions
Challenges that traditional forms of government failed to meet included rapid growth of urban population, increasing impoverishment of rural peasantry, and rise of a new class of wealthy merchant commoners
Traditional aristocratic rule was being undermined with cities searching for ways to resolve this social conflict
Almost limitless variety of political forms elaborated in Greece's city-states
Two intertwined results of political and social turmoil of 7th century B.C.E.
Colonization
Tyranny
Greeks sought change externally through emigration and internally through political restructuring
Due to changes in economy, population growth, and opposition to aristocratic power
New form of colonization began in western Mediterranean around 750 B.C.E.
Colonization relieved some pressure that population growth had on Greek communities
Didn’t solve political conflict
Weakness of tyrannies was they depended on individual qualities of the ruler for success
Tyrants tended to pass their powers onto their sons
Tyrannies became hereditary
Cities went on to resent incompetent or harsh heirs’ control of government
New forms of government emerged
Military, political, and cultural life in city-states became more democratic
Democratization didn’t extend to women
Women didn’t play a public role in the lift of the community except in a few cities and certain religious cults
They were isolated
Remained firmly under male control throughout their lives
Women were to be good others and obedient wives
Women who were in public were mostly slaves, frequently prostitutes
Many female slaves were acquired through collecting and raising infant daughters
Greek society didn’t condemn or question infanticide, prostitution, and sexual exploitation of women and slave boys
The gods of Archaic Greece were the same as those of the Mycenaeans
The Greeks and gods had an ambivalent, almost irreverent relationship
Greeks made regular offerings to the gods, pleaded them for help, and gave them thanks for assistance
Greeks offered the gods sacrifices on altars which were raised everywhere
Homes, fields, sacred groves
Festivals celebrated at sanctuaries honored the gods of the city with athletic contests, processions, and feasts on special occasions
Wars and conflicts were suspended temporarily every four years while athletes from Greek met at Olympia t o participate in contests in honor of Zeus beginning in 776 B.C.E.
Initially sports included only footraces and wrestling
Later, horse races and other events were added
Games at Olympia grew in importance
In the 6th and 7th centuries B.C.E. Apollo was acknowledged as the expert on justice
Gods weren’t privileged or protected despite being petitioned, placated, and pampered
Religious cults weren’t under the exclusive control of any priesthood or political group
The gods belonged to everyone, much like literacy and government
Stories of gods and heroes were fashioned into months
Explained and described the world as it was and as it should be
Myths were told about every city, shrine, river, mountain, and island
Myths explained origins of cities, festivals, and the world itself
These myths became more than simply explanations of how things came to be
Myths supported the authority of social, political, and religious traditions
Archaic Greeks constantly reworked ancient myths
Retold them
Adjusted their content and their meanings
Greeks were urged to model themselves based upon the examples of ancients from the Iliad and the Odyssey
Ionian Greeks began to investigate origins and nature of the universe through observation by 6th century B.C.E.
New, open examination of traditional values extended in all areas of investigation
Ionian philosophers went on to reach conclusions through observation and rational thought
Religion and the gods didn’t play a direct role in their conclusions
By 6th century B.C.E. much of Greek society was prepared to tolerate such nonreligious, rational teachings
Archaic Greeks borrowed from everywhere
Transformed what they borrowed
Adopted and adopted Phoenician alphabet and Mesopotamian science
Lions, griffins, and other beast started to appear on vases , jugs, vials, and other pottery as Greek traders increased their contact with the Near East
Greek sculpture went through a dramatic development
The political, social and cultural transformations that took place in the Archaic Age took different forms across Greek world
Corinthian pottery appeared throughout western Greece and southern Italy
Corinthian trade led to colonization
Settlers from Corinth founded Syracuse and other cities in Sicily and Italy
Colonists reduced population pressure on city and provided markets for grain and manufactured goods
Corinth transported other cities’ products from east to west
Increased prosperity
Corinth and its wealth were ruled in typical Dark Age fashion until the middle of 7th century B.C.E.
Tyrants in Corinth restructured taxes
Relied primarily on its customs duties
Corinth led the Greek world in production of black figure pottery
Spread through Mediterranean
Tyrants laid foundation for proper political participation
Corinth was divided into 3 regions
Population of each region was distributed song each weight tribes
Prevented the emergence of political factions based on regional disputes
New government continued tribal and council system established by Cypsela
Corinth became a city more open to commerce and wealth than mot
Moderate in political institutions
Eager for stability
Population growth increased disparity between rich and poor
Expanding economy created powerful tensions
War was the center of Spartan life
War was at the origin of Spartans’ social and political organization
State was governed by two hereditary kings and council of elders
Central institution of Spartan government was the Gerousia
Consisted of 30 men at least 60 years old including kings
Directed all political activity especially foreign affairs, and served as the high court
Members were elected for life
A radical social reform that placed everyone under direct supervision and service of state from birth to death was the key to the success of Sparta’s political reform
Spartan public officials examined infants and decided if they were strong enough to be allowed to live or should be exposed on a hillside to die
Much of the education of youths was entrusted to accomplished older warriors
Said older warriors selected boys as their homosexual lovers
Youths were trained
If they survived until 30, they could be incorporated into the rank of equals
Spartan women were allowed to train athletic competition
Footraces, wrestling, and spear throwing
Training was done on the desire to improve the physical stamina and childbearing ability of Spartan women
Total dedication to military life was reinforced by deliberate rejection of other activities
Legend made Sparta the birthplace of music
Athens was one of few Mycenaean cities to have escaped destruction t the start of the Dark Age
Athens united whole surrounding region of Attica into single polis
Largest in the Greek world
Athens followed general pattern of polis seen in Corinth and Sparta
Athens began to suffer from the same class conflict that had shaken other cities by late 7th century B.C.E.
Newly rich merchants and artisans of middle class resented aristocratic monopoly on political power
Poor farmers were angry due to them being forced into debt to the wealthy with them or their children being sold as slaves by their creditors when they were unable to pay their debts
Violence between groups and families threatened to tear apart the community
Athenians who had been forced into slavery were restored to freedom
A law forbade mortgaging free men and women as security for debts
Solon’s reforms established framework for a resolution of Athens's social tensions despite not succeeding completely
Athenian tyrants strengthened Solon’s constitution while further destroying the powers of aristocracy
Cleisthenes pushed a final constitutional reform that became the basis for Athenian democracy
Corinth, Sparta, and Athens weren’t typical Archaic Greek cities
Products of Greek experimentation were evident throughout the Mediterranean by the end of the 6th century B.C.E.
Persian Empire began process of conquest and expansion west into Asia Minor
Tyrants loyal to Persia ended up ruling over Greek communities
Greeks revolted with the Persian Empire responding slowly but forcefully to Greek revolt
War took place and lasted five years, and ended in Persian victory
Compared to the floodplains of the Near East, civilization developed much later in the Mediterranean
Earliest Bronze Age societies of Greece and neighboring islands were influenced by contact with Mesopotamia and Egypt, while developing distinctive societies and cultures that were tied closely to the sea around them
Archaic Age was an age of experimentation
