In the new constitutional order that Augustus created, the basic governmental structure consisted of the princeps and an aristocratic senate.
Augustus retained the senate as the chief deliberative body of the Roman state.
Augustus held the office of consul, which gave him imperium, or the right to command.
When Augustus gave up the consulship in 23 B.
Although officials continued to be elected, Augustus’s authority ensured that his candidates for office usually won.
Augustus proved highly popular. ’’
The ending of the civil wars had greatly bolstered Augustus’s popularity.
At the same time, his continuing control of the army, while making possible the Roman peace, was a crucial source of his power.
The shift to a professional army was completed when early emperors created a bureaucracy that could train and administer such an army.
The peace of the Roman Empire depended on the army, and so did the security of the princeps.
Though primarily responsible for guarding the frontiers of the empire, the army was also used to maintain domestic order within the provinces.
Moreover, the army played an important social role.
The Augustan Age was a lengthy one.
Augustus died in 14 C.E. after dominating the Roman world for forty-five years.
Indeed, as the Roman historian Tacitus pointed out, ‘‘Actium had been won before the younger men were born.
Political equality was a thing of the past; all eyes watched for imperial commands.’’
The Republic was now only a memory and, given its last century of warfare, an unpleasant one at that.
There was no serious opposition to Augustus’s choice of successor, his stepson Tiberius.
The Julio-Claudians - The Julio-Claudian rulers varied greatly inability.
Tiberius was a competent general and an able administrator who tried initially to involve the Senate in government.
Caligula was a grandnephew of Tiberius and the great-grandson of Augustus.
Claudius had been mistreated by his family because of a physical disability due to partial paralysis, but he was intelligent, well educated, and competent.
Caligula, who became mentally unbalanced, wanted to be hailed as a god and neglected affairs of state while indulging his passions.
Caligula proved so unpredictable that the officers of the praetorian guard hatched a plot and assassinated him before he had ruled for four complete years.
Afterward, they chose Claudius, uncle of Caligula, as the next emperor and forced the senate to confirm their act, thereby demonstrating the power of the military units stationed around Rome.
The Early Empire was a period of considerable prosperity.
Merchants from all over the empire came to the chief Italian ports of Puteoli on the Bay of Naples and Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber.
The importation of large quantities of grain to feed the populace of Rome and an incredible quantity of luxury items for the wealthy upper classes in the west led to a steady drain of gold and silver coins from Italy and the west to the eastern part of the empire.
Long-distance trade beyond the Roman frontiers also flourished during the Early Empire.
The shift from Republic to empire not only transformed the Roman political world but also affected its cultural and social life.
Intellectuals found ways to accommodate the autocratic rule of emperors while Roman architects created massive buildings befitting an empire.
Gladiatorial games and slavery increased dramatically in the Early Empire, while upper-class women acquired greater independence.
The Silver Age of Latin Literature In the history of Latin literature, the century and a half after Augustus has often labeled the ‘‘silver age’’ to indicate that the literary efforts of the period, while good, were not equal to the high standards of the Augustan ‘‘golden age.
A good example of this trend can be found in the works of Seneca.
SENECA Educated in Rome, Seneca became strongly attached to the philosophy of Stoicism.
After serving as a tutor to Nero, he helped run the government during the first five years of Nero’s reign.
Seneca began to withdraw from politics after Nero took a more active role in government.
In 65, he was charged with involvement in a conspiracy against Nero and committed suicide at Nero’s command. ’’
As a member of the senatorial class, Tacitus was disgusted with the abuses of power perpetrated by the emperors and was determined that the ‘‘evil deeds’’ of wicked men would not be forgotten.
JUVENAL The best poet of the silver age was Juvenal, who wrote five books of satires in which he pilloried the manners and vices of his generation.
He attacked the affectations of Roman women, the abuse of slaves, the excesses of emperors, the eastern and Greek immigrants, his own poverty, and the inequities of Roman society.
Art in the Early Empire The Romans contributed little that was original to painting and sculpture.
Much work was done by Greek artists and craftspeople who adhered to the Roman desire for realism and attention to detail.
In architecture, the Romans continued to imitate Greek styles and made use of colonnades, rectangular structures, and post-and-lintel construction.
But the Romans were innovative in their own way.
The Romans were the first people in antiquity to use concrete on a massive scale.
These large buildings were made possible by Roman engineering skills.
The foundations of the authority of the paterfamilias over his family, which had already begun to weaken in the late Republic, were further undermined.
In the Early Empire, the idea of male guardianship continued to weaken significantly, and by the late second century, it had become a mere formality.
Upper-class Roman women in the Early Empire had considerable freedom and independence.
Upper-class women could attend races, the theater, and events in the amphitheater, although in the latter two places they were forced to sit in separate female sections.
Some women-operated businesses, such as shipping firms.
At the end of the first century and the beginning of the second, there was a noticeable decline in the number of children among the upper classes, a trend that had already begun in the late Republic.
Despite imperial laws aimed at increasing the number of children, the low birthrate persisted.
Not only did infanticide continue to be practiced, but upper-class Romans also used contraception and abortion to limit their families.
Though highly touted, amulets, magical formulas, and potions to induce temporary sterility proved ineffective, as did the rhythm method, since Roman medical writers believed that a woman was most fertile just when menstruation was ending.
Although exact numbers are not available, we do know that many upper-class women between the ages of sixteen and thirty-five died in childbirth.
Prominent women who died in childbirth or soon after due to complications include Cicero’s daughter Tullia and Caesar’s daughter Julia.
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