microbiology exam 2

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174 Terms

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quaternary protein structure
protein consisting of more than one amino acid chain
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tertiary protein structure
3- dimensional folding pattern of a protein due to side chain interactions
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secondary protein structure
local folding of the polypeptide chain into helices (a- helix) or sheets (B- pleated sheet)
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primary protein structure
sequence of a chain of amino acids
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peptide chain
series of amino acids
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non- polar \=
hydrophobic
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polar \=
hydrophilic
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amino acids
molecule with an amino group, a hydrogen atom, a carboxyl group, and a side chain. monomer for proteins
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hopene is the
bacterial cholesterol. it strengthens bacterial cell membranes.
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cholesterol is the most common
sterol in animal tissues. its main purpose is to strengthen cell membranes.
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sterols are
complex ringed structures with hydrophobic fatty acid chains
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isoprenols are used in
pharmaceuticals, fragrances, and pigments
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isoprenols have
many physiological functions such as wax production in the sebaceous glands of hair follicles and propionibacterium acnes
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isoprenols are
branched lipids
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phospholipids are an important part of the
plasma membrane because of their lipid bilayer
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phospholipids arrange themselves into
2 distinct parts (hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail)
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phospholipids are
complex lipids that contain glycerol, 2 fatty acids, and a phosphate group
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triglycerides are formed with
3 fatty acids and a glycerol molecule
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triglycerides are used as a main
energy storage
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fatty acids are
hydrophobic, which means water- fearing
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example of an unsaturated fatty acid
olive oil
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unsaturated\=
at least one double bond, liquid at room temperature
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examples of saturated fatty acids
lard, butter, and coconut oil
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saturated\=
single bonds, completely full of hydrogens, solid at room temperature
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fatty acids
long chain hydrocarbons with a carboxylic acid functional group
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Lipids (fats)
diverse: energy storage, structural components, storage form of carbon
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cellulose (fiber)
linear structure. found in the leaves and stems of plants. it is what holds them up.
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glycogen
branched, energy storage in animals and bacteria
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starch
branched, main energy storage in plants
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3 most important polysaccharides
starch, glycogen, and cellulose
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polysaccharides
hundreds of monosaccharides linked together. not sweet and insoluble in water. main purpose is energy storage.
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disaccharides
2 sugars. taste sweet. monosaccharides chemically bonded by a glycosidic bond
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monosaccharides
monomer of carbohydrates. 'sweet ones'- mono sugars or simple sugars
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carbohydrates
polymer. "hydrated carbons" - mostly consist of carbon chains with hydrogen atoms. have many functions, but especially important as food sources.
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proteins
enzymes, structure, receptors, transport, structural role in the cytoskeleton of a cell and the extracellular matrix
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nucleic acids
storage and transfer of genetic information. DNA and RNA are made out of this.
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lipids
energy storage (long), membrane structure, insulation, hormones, pigments
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carbohydrates
energy storage (short), receptors, food, structural role in plants fungal cell walls, exoskeletons of insects
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what are the 4 important macromolecules?
carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, proteins
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dehydration synthesis
every time two monomers are linked together, a water molecule is lost.
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polymers are
many individual monomers hooked together in a long chain
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many macromolecules are
polymers
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macromolecule
large carbon chain skeletons + functional groups
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R\=
'residue'
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functional groups
specified groups of atoms categorized by their structure and function
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the structure almost always
affects the function
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isomers
molecules with the same chemical formula, but different structures
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organic molecules form
carbon skeletons and can be straight, branched, or ring- shaped
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methane is the most
simple organic molecule
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carbon is capable of forming
4 covalent bonds
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exception of an inorganic molecule
carbon dioxide
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examples of inorganic molecules
water and salts
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2 less abundant elements
phosphorus and sulfur
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carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen
have low atomic numbers and are very light, capable of forming strong bonds with other elements to form molecules
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4 most abundant elements
hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen
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inorganic molecules do not
contain carbon
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organic molecules contain
carbon
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biochemistry \=
the chemistry of life
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heredity
how genes are passed down from generation to generation
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genetics
science of heredity
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blending theory of inheritance
if you smushed 2 parents' genes together, the child would be a straight mix. explains how children seem to be a mix of their parents. doesn't explain how traits can skip generations and how some children look exactly like one parent.
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what is the main problem regarding the blending theory of inheritance?
the genes of the parents disappear.
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Gregor Mendel
famous for his experiments with garden peas. he used true- breeding plants. he found out that traits can skip generations. he disproved the blending theory of inheritance.
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what are true- breeding plants?
they always produce offspring that look just like the parents
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Boveri- Sutton Model of Inheritance
1) traits or genes are carried on chromosomes and passed from one generation to another.
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2) traits are randomly distributed during meiosis.

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law of independent assortment
the alleles of 2 or more different genes get sorted into gametes independently of one another
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why do microbes provide distinct advantages over plants, animals, and other larger organisms?
they are smaller, easy to grow, nutritional needs are easily met, and can grow high populations in small amounts of time and space
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Joachim Hammerling Acetabularia experiments
if you cut off the top of the algae, it can grow a new top. it will not die. if you cut off the bottom, it will not regenerate a new foot. it was hypothesized that the nucleus that contained the genetic information was contained somewhere in the foot. in the second set of experiments, they used 2 different sets of Acetabularia that had different caps. when he grafted on different parts of the algae, the nucleus regrew. the genetic information required to regrow this organism is contained within the foot.
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Acetabularia
algae that has a very particular morphology. the nucleus is contained in the foot of this algae.
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Griffith's transformation experiments
2 different strains of the same bacteria (rough- R and smooth- S strain). the rough strain is nonvirulent, so it won't kill the mouse. the smooth strain has a capsule, which makes it very capable of getting past the human immune system. it is very virulent and deadly; it can kill a human and a mouse. first control is rough strain. it is injected into the mouse, but the mouse lives. first experiment: heat killed smooth strain. second experiment: combination of rough strain and dead smooth strain. takes non- virulent rough strain bacteria and transforms it to be virulent. mouse dies. third experiment: only had live smooth strain bacteria. mouse dies. These experiments proved that there is something in dead smooth strain that transforms the rough strain.
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Friedrich Miescher
isolated phosphorus- rich chemicals from white blood cells from pus of used bandages, called them nuclein (located in nucleus)- which would later be known as DNA and RNA. 20 years later, chemicals were termed nucleic acids.
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Albrecht Kossel
isolated 5 nucleic acid bases (adenine A, guanine G, cytosine C, thymine T, and uracil U)
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Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty
experiments in 1944 based off Griffith transformation experiments. still using R and S strains. mixed heat killed s- strain with live r- strain and transformation occurred. in a bunch of different tubes, they degraded different parts of the cell. in the control, no enzymes were used. Protein, DNA, and RNA were all present. When this tube is mixed with the heat- killed s- strain and R cells are added, transformation occurs. first experiment: used proteases (enzymes that degrade proteins). no more proteins are left on the heat- killed s- strain, but still had DNA and RNA. when you add r- cells, the s- cells are still present. transformation did occur. transformation still occurs if you take away the RNA. when the DNA is degraded and r- cells are added, there is no transformation. you get no s- cells. DNA is the only one required to make transformation occur; they proved that DNA is transforming material.
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polymer of nucleotides
nucleic acid (DNA or RNA)
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monomer of nucleic acids
nucleotides
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3 parts of a DNA nucleotide
base, deoxyribose sugar (5- carbon), and a phosphate group
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pyrimidines
single ring structure (cytosine, thymine, uracil)
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purines
double- ringed structure (adenine and guanine)
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Erwin Chargaff
first one to notice that the amount of adenine was always equal to the amount of thymine and the amount of guanine was always equal to cytosine. But, the amount of A and T combined compared to the amount of G and C combined was not equal
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Rosalind Franklin
first one to take x- ray diffraction images of DNA. she discovered that DNA in a 3- D structure was a double- helix, but she did not receive any credit. Had a coworker named Wilkins, who was named in the Nobel Prize paper.
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James Watson and Francis Crick
received all the credit. (3- D model of the double- helix of DNA in Nature, 1953, received a Nobel Prize)
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DNA double- helix
the backbone is made of sugar and phosphate. nucleotide bases hold the 2 sides together. they run anti- parallel to each other. one runs 3'- 5, the other runs 5'- 3'. one side is flipped upside down. A is always bound to T and G is always bound to C. pyrimidines are always bound to purines. this makes the backbone straight. straight lines depict covalent bonds. they are permanent and strong. they give electrons away. (backbone). Dotted lines depict hydrogen bonds. they are much weaker. they share electrons. (pyrimidines and purines)
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what are DNA's two primary functions?
1) store information needed to build and control a cell
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2) transfer that information from one cell to another

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what are the 2 types of DNA transfer from one cell to another?
vertical and horizontal gene transfer
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vertical gene transfer
movement of genes from one generation to another (sexual reproduction)- humans are capable of this.
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horizontal gene transfer
transferring genetic information within the same generation- humans are not capable of this, but bacteria and other microorganisms are.
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DNA
- deoxyribonucleic acid (missing oxygen)
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- double- stranded

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- generally, more stable. used for long term storage

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- exists in long strands or circular pieces

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- thymine

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RNA
- ribonucleic acid
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- single- stranded

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- less stable. used in more short- term functions

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- exists in shorter pieces

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- uracil

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RNA function
direct and control protein synthesis
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what are the three types of RNA?
mRNA, tRNA, rRNA