Unit 4 Foundations: Functional Harmony Through Good Voice Leading

Voice leading

The craft of moving individual musical lines (voices) from one harmony to the next so each line sounds singable and independent while clearly expressing the intended chords and cadences.

Common tone

A pitch shared by two consecutive chords; keeping it in the same voice creates smoother connections and helps avoid forbidden parallels.

Independence of lines

A core goal of chorale-style writing where each voice behaves like a melody (not just chord tones jumping around), so the parts remain distinct.

Stepwise motion

Moving by step (to an adjacent scale tone); preferred in chorale style because it sounds vocal, connected, and stabilizes the texture.

Voice crossing

When a voice moves into another voice’s register so that (for example) the alto ends up higher than the soprano, blurring voice identity.

Voice overlap

When a voice moves past the previous note of an adjacent voice (e.g., the alto’s new note is higher than the soprano’s previous note), even if the final chord doesn’t cross.

Upper-voice spacing rule

In SATB, soprano–alto and alto–tenor spacing should generally be no more than an octave; tenor–bass spacing may be larger.

Parallel fifths

Two voices move in the same direction from a perfect fifth to another perfect fifth, causing the lines to blend and lose independence.

Parallel octaves

Two voices move in the same direction from an octave to another octave, making the voices sound like one line rather than independent parts.

Direct (hidden) fifths/octaves

In outer voices, soprano and bass move in the same direction into a perfect fifth or octave while the soprano leaps; discouraged because it weakens outer-voice independence.

Tendency tone

A scale degree with a strong directional pull that is expected to resolve in a specific way to satisfy tonal expectations.

Leading tone

Scale degree 7 in major and harmonic minor; typically resolves up by step to the tonic (scale degree 1).

Chordal seventh

The seventh of a seventh chord; typically resolves down by step in the same voice in common-practice voice leading.

Parallel motion

Two voices move in the same direction by the same interval size between two chords.

Similar motion

Two voices move in the same direction but by different interval sizes between two chords.

Contrary motion

Two voices move in opposite directions; useful for maintaining independence and avoiding parallel perfect intervals.

Oblique motion

One voice stays on the same pitch while another voice moves; helpful for smoothness and avoiding parallels.

Doubling

In four-part writing, repeating one chord member (common in triads) so four voices can realize a three-note chord; choices affect stability and voice-leading options.

Doubling the root (root-position triads)

A common default in SATB triads because it tends to sound stable and avoids emphasizing tendency tones (e.g., safer than doubling the leading tone in V).

First inversion triad (6 chord)

A triad with the third in the bass; often used to smooth the bass line, with more flexible doubling (but avoid doubling strong tendency tones like the leading tone).

Second inversion triad (6/4 chord)

A triad with the fifth in the bass; in chorale style it is often a contrapuntal event with specific voice-leading expectations rather than a stable harmony.

Cadential 6/4

A I6/4 that functions as a dominant expansion: typically over scale degree 5 in the bass, with upper voices resolving downward into tones of V (often then to V7 and I).

SATB writing (four-part chorale writing)

A standardized four-voice texture (Soprano, Alto, Tenor, Bass) used to test harmony and voice leading: correct chord spelling/function, smooth independent lines, and plausible vocal ranges/spacing.

Seventh chord in SATB

Because it has four distinct chord members, it is typically written with all four notes and no doubling; the chordal seventh must resolve down by step.

Authentic cadence (V to I)

A cadence where dominant resolves to tonic; typically features leading tone (7→1), often scale degree 2→1 in an upper voice, and if V7 is used, its seventh resolves down by step (in minor, raised 7 is required for a strong pull).