Key Concepts in Psychology and Behavioral Science

Empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

Structuralism

early school of thought promoted by wundt and titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

Functionalism

early school of thought promoted by james and influenced by darwin; explored how mental and behavioral process function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

Experimental psychology

the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method

Behaviorism

the view that psychology 1) should be an objective science that 2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes

Humanistic psychology

a historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people

Cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition

Psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

nature - nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from interaction of nature and nurture

Natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on the succeeding generations

Levels of analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-culture, for analyzing any given phenomenon

Biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological psychological and sociocultural level of analysis

Behavioral psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

Biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes

Cognitive psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection

Psychodynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

Social-culture psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

Psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

Basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

Developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

Personality psychology

the study of an individual's characteristics, pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Social psychology

Scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Applied research

Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

Industrial-organizational psychology (I/O)

The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behaviors in workplace

Human factors psychology

An I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

Counseling psychology

A branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living

Clinical psychology

A branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

Psychiatry

A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy

Positive psychology

Study of human functioning with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

Community psychology

Branch of psych that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome that one would have foreseen it

Critical thinking

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

Hypothesis

Testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Operational definition

Carefully worded statement of the exact operations used in a research study

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Case study

A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Naturalistic observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situations

Survey

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sampling of the group

Sampling bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Population

All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

Random sampling

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other

Correlation coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1.0 to +1.0)

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables.

Scatter

The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.

Illusory correlation

The perception of a relationship where none exists.

Experiment

A method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process.

Experimental group

In an experiment, this group is exposed to the treatment that is to one version of the independent variable.

Control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment.

Random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.

Double blind procedures

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and research staff are blind about if the research participants received the treatment.

Placebo effect

Experiment result caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition.

Independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated (variable being studied).

Dependent variable

The outcome factor (variable that may change in response to manipulations).

Confounding variable

A fact other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to be.

Descriptive statistics

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures variation.

Histogram

A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.

Mode

Most frequent score.

Mean

Average of scores.

Median

Middle score.

Skewed distribution

A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value.

Range

Difference between highest and lowest number.

Standard deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Normal curve

Symmetrical, most scores fall near the mean.

Inferential statistics

Numerical data that allow one to generalize to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population.

Statistical significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Culture

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Informed consent

Ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of the study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

Biological psychology

The scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes.

Neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

Dendrites

A neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses towards the cell body.

Axon

The neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons.

Myelin sheath

A fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one sausage-like node to the next.

Action potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

Refractory period

A period of not doing anything when the neuron has fired.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

All or none response

A neuron's reaction of either firing with all its strength or not firing at all.

Synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synapse gaps between neurons.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals released by the sending neuron that travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

Reuptake

A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron.

Nervous system

The body's communication system.

Central nervous system

Made up of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system

Sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body.

Nerves

Axons that are cables connecting the central nervous system with muscle, glands, and sense organs.

Sensory neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

Motor neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain to the muscle.

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

Somatic nervous system

The division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles.

Autonomic nervous system

Part of the PNS that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs.

Sympathetic nervous system

Division of ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Division of the ANS that calms the body, conserving its energy.

Reflex

A simple automatic response to a sensory stimulus such as a knee jerk response.

Endocrine system

The body's slow chemical communication system, a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Hormones

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.