Education - socio

Material deprivation

Lacking basic necessities due to poverty.

Cultural deprivation

Inadequate socialisation in the home.

Material deprivation's effects on education

90% of failing schools are in deprived areas. Dpt of Education (2012) barely 1/3 of students eligible for free school meals achieve 5 or more GCSE's at A*-C. These students are more likely to be excluded and truant.

Effects of housing on educational achievement

Direct - overcrowding makes it difficult for a child to study, disturbed sleep from sharing beds or rooms. Indirect - effects on health and welfare e.g. children in crowded house run a greater risk of having an accident. Cold or damp house leads to infections or illness.

Effects of diet and health on educational achievement

Howard (2001) kids from poorer homes have a lower intake of energy, vitamins and minerals. Wilkinson (1999) kids from poorer backgrounds are more likely to have emotional/ behavioural problems. Blanden and Machin (2007) found children from poorer backgrounds more likely to engage in fights or temper tantrums.

University and social class

Callender and Jackson (2005) w/c students more likely to see debt negatively.

Bernstein (1973)

w/c students underachieve because they are socialised into a restricted language code whereas schools favour an elaborated language code which middle class students are socialised into.

Marketization

process of introducing market forces of consumer choice and competition in education.

Bernstein and Young (1967)

better educated parents have higher incomes and spend them on promoting education to their children, via educational trips or toys.

Douglas (1964)

w/c parents place less value on education - less ambitious for their children and give them less encouragement.

Bourdieu (1984)

cultural capital refers to the knowledge, tastes, language, attitudes and values of the middle class.

Gillborn and Youdell (2001)

teachers label students based on stereotypical assumptions of their class worth, they also argue that labelling leads to a self fulfilling prophecy

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Living up to your label.

Archer (2010)

found pupils were creating 'Nike identities' by investing heavily in style to gain class worth.

Educational triage

no hopers, those with potential, those who will pass anyway (Gillborn and Youdell).

Stephen Ball (1981)

looked at abolishing streaming in schools & found when it was abolished anti-school subcultures were less likel to be created but teacher labelling continued.

Black family structure

mostly headed by a single female parent. Murray (1984) argues financial difficulty and a lack of male role model leads to the children in these families being inadequately socialised and go onto fail at school.

Asian family structure

Lupton (2004) argues that adult authority in Asian fams is similar to the way schools operate. Pryce adds that Asian kids are more resistant to racism so develop self-worth.

Wood et al (2010)

Found evidence of discrimination in employment, he sent three closely matched application forms to 1,000 job vacancies using fictitious applicant names. Only 1/16 ethnic minority offered an interview compared with 1/9 white applications.

Ethnocentric curriculum

Coard (2005) argues that school curriculum is enthocentric and based on white culture as Eng Lit is based of British lit, European history and foreign language studies ignore non-European history and languages and Christianity is the curriculums central religion.

Racialised expectations

Gillborn and Youdell found teachers underestimate black students and were quicker to see there behaviour as threatening.

Lack of language skills and foreign qualifications

may cause ethnic minorities not to perform well in school.

The male gaze

the way males look girls up and down, seeing them as sexual objects and making judgements about their appearance.

Double standards

boys boast about their sexual exploits yet if girls did the same they would be labelled 'slags'

Ringrose (2013)

'frigid shaming' 'slut shaming' 'boffin identity'

Gender's different clothing

Norman (1998) boys and girls are often dressed differently growing up, boys in dungarees and girls in dresses so boys are more likely to grow up liking practical subjects like PE but girls are not.

Boys and literacy

Dads and Sons Campaign, Reading Champions, Playing for success are all campaigns to get more boys into reading. Mothers often read to their children before bed so they associate reading with being effeminate.

Single-sex schooling

Students in these schools make less gender specific subject choices and hold less stereotypical views. Leonard (2006) found girls in these schools were more likely to pick science and maths at A Level.

Changes in the family

Women now take on the breadwinner role when it used to be solely men.

Sex Discrimination Act (1975)

giving women more rights at work.

Equal Pay Act (1970)

reduced the pay gap between men and women.

National Curriculum(1988)

gave girls and boys the opportunity to study the same subjects.

GIST/WISE

help get girls to have an increased interest in technology and science subjects.

Mac and Ghail (1994)

found the 'macho lads' in school found working hard at school was effeminate and were anti-school so they underachieved.

Teachers and discipline

Teachers help reinforce gender identities as male teachers have told boys off for 'behaving like girls' and male teachers often 'rescue' female colleagues from disruptive students.

Verbal abuse

Lees (1986) argues that boys use name-calling to put girls down if the dress or behave in a certain way.

Working class girls and uni

Evans (2009) found w/c girls wanted to go to university to increase their earning power in order to help their families.

Private schools

Fee paying and selective

Advantages of private schools

New Right are in favour of them; they aren't restricted by a national curriculum, get better results and they give parents a greater choice of school.

Disadvantage of private schools

Marxists are critical. Split society in two, comprehensive schools will never be truly comprehensive if they exist, reproduce class structure.

Tripartite system (Education Act 1944)

grammar, secondary modern, technical schools, 11+ test taken to determine what school a child is sent to

Advantages of tripartite system

w/c benefit as it allows for social mobility, grammar schools get good results

Disadvantages of tripartite system

11 is too early to determine a child's future, 11+ was written in elaborated code so favoured m/c, 1 in 4 kids sent to the wrong school, legitimise social inequality.

Comprehensive schools (1965)

Free, non-selective, mixed ability and background children attend.

Disadvantages of a comprehensive school

obtain worse exam results, 'myth of meritocracy' not ended up with a healthy social class mix, mini tripartite system within a single school.

Advantages of a comprehensive school

breaks down social barriers, more equality of educational opportunity, more efficient, free

Policies that promote the education market

Open enrolment, publication of league tables, formula funding, business sponsorship of schools, specialist schools (widen choice), intro. of tuition fees.

Parentocracy

David (1993) argues marketised education leads to a \________ (rule by parents). This shifts power away from the producers (teachers and schools) to the consumers (parents) and encourage choice, diversity and an increase in standards.

Evidence of declining standards in schools

grade inflation, increase in failing schools, easier exams, PISA test results - UK 2013 came 23rd for reading and 26th for maths.

Marketisation became a

central theme in schools since the Education Reform Act 1988 introduced by the Conservative government (Thatcher).

New Labour Policies (1997-2010)

Specialist schools, numeracy and literacy hours, City academies (2002), Curriculum 2000 (modular exams), Compensatory policies like sure start, Further education (BTECs, diplomas), introduced financial grants for uni

Coalition government policies (2010-2015)

New style academies (over 50% all schools now academies), free schools, compensatory policies like FSM and pupil premium, Austerity programme (reduce public spending to decrease the national deficit).

The privatisation of education

the transfer of public assets (e.g. schools) to private companies. Increasing trend towards privatisation in the UK and globally meaning that education has become a source of profit for capitalists. Molnar (2005) private sector is penetrating the education sector indirectly (the cola-isation of schools) through vending machines, displays of logos and sponsorship.

Globalisation (inter-connectedness) of education policy

It's important to consider that British society is heavily influenced by outside factors e.g. the European union; Transnational corporations; immigration and cultural produce such as fashion, film, books etc.

Kelly (2009) globalisation

acknowledges the following effects of globalisation on education: unis and private schools increasingly have to market themselves globally, often setting up overseas branches, overseas students are commodities as they pay higher fees

Ball (2011)

education has become a commodity subject to business practice and financial logistics. Marxists say competition to drive up standards is a myth used to legitimate the turning of education into private profit.

Compensatory educational policies

CEP's are government policies which are designed to raise the achievement levels of students who come from materially and culturally deprived family backgrounds. (e.g. working class and some ethnic minority groups).

Operation Head Start (USA 1960s)

Provided pre-school education to improve learning skills, offered parenting skills, children receive medical screenings, parental involvement was key, children provided w/ at least 1/3 of nutritional requirements. No long term gains in intelligence, intervention came too late in a child' life (age 3-4).

Education Action Zones (1990s)

Labour. Help for 'failing' schools, encourages innovation, helped both primary and secondary schools, encourages innovation, raised achievement. Inadequate funding, patchy success rate.

Sure Start (2000)

Labour. Covers kids from conception-14 years, encourages high quality learning environments for babies and young children and babies, also supported kids with special educational needs. Unemployed, lone parents or kids of teenage mothers did worse in sure start areas, sucking support away from those in greatest need who may feel 'overwhelmed' by the sure start offer.

EMA (2004)

Education Maintenance Allowance was introduced by Labour. A Level students whose households earn less than £30,000 per year entitled to £30 a week to help with the cost of studying. Encouraged social mobility, acted as a motivator to stay in education, encourages kids not to take up part-time work, EMA improved A Level students performance by 4.5%. Extremely costly, can spend the money on anything they wanted, created resentment between kids who couldn't claim it, argued it is morally wrong to incentivise students with money.

Pupil premium (2012)

Conservative government. Replaced EMA, given to the school not individual students, head teachers choice how to spend it, schools monitored for how they spend it, OFSTED monitors it. OFSTED (2012) found its not always spent appropriately, only 1/10 of headteachers said it helped support disadvantaged kids in school.

Free school meals

FSM means tested benefit available to kids whose household income is less than £16,000 a year, estimated to cost gov. £600 million a year, research shows kids w/ a regular healthy meal more likely to concentrate. It isn't extended to older kids in education, scheme has been extended to kids who can afford meals, gov. cut from child benefit to fund it (irony), detrimental effect on other areas of school life.

Multi-cultural education (1980s)

an anti-discrimination policy that encourages kids to recognise cultural diversity, encourages schools to move away from ethnocentric curriculum, raise-self esteem of minority kids. Pressures of national curriculum have left no time for multicultural education, criticised for tokenism.

Social inclusion policies (1990s)

an anti-discrimination policy. monitoring of exam results by ethnicity, English as an additional language programmes, help for voluntary Saturday schools in the black community. Fails to tackle real cause for ethnic inequality (racism and poverty), institutionally racist policies n practices still disadvantage some ethnic minority students (such as streaming, ethnocentric curriculum).

Durkheim functionalist

Consensus theory. Durkheim (1925) schools are societies in miniature, integrates kids into socially agreed norms and values, hidden curriculum teaches this.

Parsons functionalist

(1961) education has 3 main values. It is a bridge between family and wider society, socialises kids, selects kids for their future roles in society. (status based on merit, and therefore is achieved not ascribed).

Davies and Moore (1945) functionalist

Role allocation-education sorts ppl according to their ability so it suits them, education system's meritocratic, room for social mobility.

Criticisms of functionalism

Hargreaves says education promotes competition and individualism rather than shared values, not based on meritocratic values, Marxists argue norms and values learned are ruling class ideologies.

Althusser marxist

(1971) Repressive state apparatus, ideological state apparatus help ruling class to maintain power and position in society. Legitimises inequality by persuading workers inequality is inevitable.

Myth of meritocracy

Bowles and Gintis argue role allocation isn't based on merit, but social class, 'old school tie' network ensures top jobs go to upper middle class, legitimates economic/class inequalities.

Willis: Learning to Labour

used a combo. of qualitative (ethnography) to study the counter culture of 12 working class boys 'the lads'. Noted similarities between anti-school subculture of the lads and the shopfloor culture of male manual workers, the lads saw manual work as masculine and intellectual as feminine. Willis concluded this anti-school subculture helped them to slot into working class jobs.

Criticisms of marxism

Willis' sample size of 12 is too small, Neo-Marxists say not all w/c pupils passively accept everything they're taught, often resist discipline from school, Reynolds (1984) argues some subjects DO encourage critical thinking i.e. sociology.

Correspondence principle

school mirrors the workplace, in terms of structure, hierarchy, organisation. This is because school prepares kids for working in capitalist businesses.

Hidden curriculum marxism

teach acceptance of hierarchy, motivated by external rewards of exam success like how workers are motivated by wages, work and education are fragmented or broken into small pieces, so that workers/pupils have little overall understanding of production/society, creates false class consciousness, conformist pupils awarded higher grades.

Feminist socialisation role

schools socialise students into masculine and feminine identities through verbal abuse, the male gaze and the way teachers discipline pupils. they also socialise students, e.g. through peer pressure, teacher bias. Feminists believe that some of the processes in schools prevent females from achieving their full potential, argue that schools serve to reproduce patriarchy and gender inequalities.

Feminist hidden curriculum

Stanworth (1983) found that education did this: males are more important than females, boys cleverer than girls, boys careers' are more important then girls, senior positions in education are disproportionately held by men.

Feminist role allocation

not based on meritocracy, but gender, point to the 'glass ceiling' prevents many women occupying senior occupational positions, girl n boy subject choices at school leads to being allocated in gender stereotyped jobs.

Criticisms of feminism

tend to disregard the way in which education system disadvantages males, clear evidence girls do better than males in education due to many education policies favouring girls e.g. GIST/WISE and marketization.

New right

conservative political perspective, believe some people are more talented than others, favour education based on meritocracy, education needs to socialise pupils into shared norms and values

New right the role of the state

sees the state as having 3 major roles: should establish competition (marketization), ensure schools transmit a shared culture e.g. National curriculum, 'British values', education should affirm national identity, they oppose multi-cultural education.

New right Chubb and Moe

New right believe that the role of state should be limited and schools should have more autonomy to meet the local needs of their intake. Criticise American schools because they don't have private schools, their schools failed to make equal opportunity, state education was inefficient. Chubb and Moe found children from low income families do 5% better in private schools, suggests marketization improves standards.

New right role of the state

See the state as having three major roles: establish a framework of competition so parents can make informed choice e.g. OFSTED reports, school should transmit a shared culture e.g. national curriculum, should affirm national identity.

Criticisms of new right

marketization benefits middle classes not w/c, real cause of low standards is social inequality & funding lack, contradictory about the role of state, Marxists say education doesn't impose a shared culture, the ruling class does

Postmodernism

socialisation role- socialises individuals into a diverse multicultural society, allocation role - allocates individuals into jobs, although not always based on merit, vocational training role - equips indivs to work in a postmodern economy which needs highly skilled and flexible workers.