336 Chapter 2

metacognition

the process of thinking about thinking itself

adolescent egocentrism

extreme self-absorption, often a consequence of too much "thinking about thinking"

imaginary audience

the belief, often brought on by the heightened self-consciousness of early adolescence, that everyone is watching and evaluating one's behaviour

personal fable

an adolescent's belief that he or she is unique and therefore not subject to the rules that govern other people's behaviour

cognitive-developmental view

a perspective on development, based on the work of Piaget, that takes a qualitative, stage-theory approach

sensorimotor period

the first stage of cognitive development, according to Piaget, spanning the period roughly between birth and age 2

preoperational period

the second stage of cognitive development, according to Piaget, spanning roughly ages 2 to 5

concrete operations

the third stage of cognitive development, according to Piaget, spanning the period roughly between age 6 and early adolescence

formal operations

the fourth stage of cognitive development, according to Piaget, spanning the period from early adolescence through adulthood

information-processing perspective

a perspective on cognition that derives from the study of artificial intelligence and attempts to explain cognitive development in terms of the growth of specific components of the thinking process (such as memory)

selective attention

the process by which we focus on one stimulus while tuning out another

divided attention

the process of paying attention to two or more stimuli at the same time

working memory

that aspect of memory in which information is held for a short time while a problem is being solved

long-term memory

the ability to recall something from a long time ago

autobiographical memory

the recall of personally meaningful past events

reminiscence bump

the fact that experiences from adolescence are generally recalled more than experiences from other stages of life

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

a technique used to produce images of the brain, often while the subject is performing some sort of mental task

diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

a technique used to produce images of the brain that shows connections among different regions

brain structure

the physical form and organization of the brain

brain function

patterns of brain activity

neurons

nerve cells

synapse

the gap in space between neurons, across which neurotransmitters carry electrical impulses

neurotransmitters

specialized chemicals that carry electrical impulses between neurons

synaptic pruning

the process through which unnecessary connections between neurons are eliminated, improving the efficiency of information processing

myelination

the process through which brain circuits are insulated with myelin, which improves the efficiency of information processing

plasticity

the capacity of the brain to change in response to experience

developmental plasticity

extensive remodeling of the brain's circuitry in response to experiences during childhood and adolescence, while the brain is still maturing

adult plasticity

relatively minor changes in brain circuits as a result of experiences during adulthood, after the brain has matured

prefrontal cortex

the region of the brain most important for sophisticated thinking abilities, such as planning, thinking ahead, weighing risks and rewards, and controlling impulses

limbic system

an area of the brain that plays an important role in the processing of emotional experience, social information, and reward and punishment

response inhibition

the suppression of a behaviour that is inappropriate or no longer required

executive function

more advanced thinking abilities, enabled chiefly by the maturation of the prefrontal cortex, especially in early adolescence

functional connectivity

the extent to which multiple brain regions function at the same time, which improves during adolescence

dopamine

a neurotransmitter especially important in the brain circuits that regulate the experience of reward

serotonin

a neurotransmitter that is especially important for the experience of different moods

positive risk taking

risk taking that promotes healthy psychological development

zone of proximal development

in Vygotsky's theory, the level of challenge that is still within the individual's reach but that forces an individual to develop more advanced skills

scaffolding

structuring a learning situation so that it is just within the reach of the student

social cognition

the aspect of cognition that concerns thinking about other people, about interpersonal relations, and about social institutions

mentalizing

the ability to understand someone else's mental state

theory of mind

the ability to understand that others have beliefs, intentions, and knowledge that may be different from one's own

social conventions

the norms that govern everyday behaviour in social situations

behavioural decision theory

an approach to understanding adolescent risk taking, in which behaviours are seen as the outcome of systematic decision-making processes

sensation seeking

the pursuit of experiences that are novel or exciting