Unit 1: Foundations of American Democracy

Enlightenment

An 18th-century European intellectual movement emphasizing reason over tradition and supporting the idea that legitimate government must be justified and limited.

Natural rights

Rights people possess because they are human (not granted by government); government’s purpose is to protect these rights.

Social contract theory

The idea that people form governments to protect rights and provide order; government is legitimate only through the people’s agreement and can be changed if it violates the contract.

Consent of the governed

The principle that government authority is legitimate only when it comes from the people’s permission (through elections and broader participation).

Rule of law

The principle that leaders and citizens must follow established legal procedures; government power is exercised through law, not personal will.

Limited government

The idea that government has only the powers given to it and is restricted by law and procedure (not “no government”).

Thomas Hobbes

Enlightenment thinker (Leviathan) who argued people cannot govern themselves well and need a strong ruler for order; associated with social contract and rule of law as stabilizing forces.

John Locke

Enlightenment thinker (Second Treatise) who argued government exists to protect natural rights (life, liberty, property) and is legitimate only with consent.

Right to revolution

Locke’s idea that if government destroys or fails to protect natural rights, the people may overthrow or replace it.

Montesquieu

Enlightenment thinker (Spirit of the Laws) who argued political power should be divided into separate branches to prevent tyranny.

Separation of powers

A constitutional design that assigns distinct responsibilities to legislative, executive, and judicial branches so no single branch controls all power.

Checks and balances

A constitutional system of shared powers that allows each branch to limit the others (e.g., veto, confirmations), reducing the risk of tyranny.

Declaration of Independence

A 1776 founding document (primarily by Thomas Jefferson) declaring separation from Great Britain and justifying it using natural rights and consent of the governed, with grievances against King George III.

Articles of Confederation

America’s first national government (ratified 1781) designed to keep national power weak: no national executive, no national court system, and heavy dependence on states.

Shays’ Rebellion

A 1786–1787 uprising by Massachusetts farmers that highlighted the national government’s weakness under the Articles and increased support for a stronger central government.

Constitutional Convention (1787)

Meeting in Philadelphia originally called to revise the Articles but resulting in a new Constitution designed to create a stronger yet limited national government.

Virginia Plan

Convention proposal for a bicameral legislature with representation based on population, favoring large states.

New Jersey Plan

Convention proposal for a unicameral legislature with equal state voting (one vote per state), favored by small states.

Great (Connecticut) Compromise

Agreement creating a bicameral Congress: House based on population and Senate with equal representation (two per state).

Three-Fifths Compromise

Agreement counting enslaved people as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation, affecting political power.

Bicameralism

A two-house legislature; in the U.S., the House is population-based and closer to the people, while the Senate provides equal state representation and greater stability.

Electoral College

The constitutional system for choosing the president using state electors equal to each state’s total members of Congress; 538 electors total and 270 needed to win.

Presidential veto

The president’s power to reject a bill passed by Congress; Congress can override with a two-thirds vote in both houses.

Federalists

Supporters of ratifying the Constitution who argued a stronger national government was needed and that internal structures would prevent tyranny.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of ratifying the Constitution who feared national power would threaten liberties and states; demanded explicit protections of rights.

Federalist Papers

Essays by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay defending the Constitution and explaining its design; commonly used as evidence of Founding-era reasoning.

Federalist No. 10

Madison’s essay arguing factions are inevitable; the solution is controlling their effects, and a large republic makes it harder for any one faction to dominate.

Federalist No. 51

Madison’s essay arguing government must be designed so “ambition counteracts ambition”; separation of powers and checks and balances help prevent tyranny.

Brutus No. 1

Anti-Federalist essay warning a large national republic would be unresponsive and that federal powers (including necessary and proper) could expand beyond intended limits.

Federalist No. 70

Hamilton’s essay arguing for a single, energetic executive (one president) to ensure effective enforcement and accountability; critics feared concentrated power.

Federalist No. 78

Hamilton’s essay arguing the judiciary would be the least powerful branch but crucial as a check through judicial review; Anti-Federalists feared lifetime appointments and federal judicial dominance.

Bill of Rights

The first 10 amendments, written by James Madison, added soon after ratification to protect individual liberties and address Anti-Federalist concerns.

Popular sovereignty

The principle that government authority comes from the people (e.g., “We the People,” elections, and representative institutions).

Republicanism

The idea that people rule indirectly through elected representatives (representative democracy), rather than voting directly on every law.

Direct democracy

A system in which citizens vote directly on laws and policies (more common at state/local levels in the U.S.).

Representative democracy

A system where citizens elect officials to make policy decisions, with representation intended to refine and channel public views.

Participatory democracy

A model emphasizing broad, active participation by ordinary citizens across many social statuses to create more responsive government.

Pluralist democracy

A model viewing policy as competition and bargaining among many groups (interest groups, parties, organizations); does not guarantee equal group power.

Elite democracy

A model arguing political power tends to be held by wealthy/educated elites and that mass participation is often discouraged or limited.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Supreme Court case that established judicial review, strengthening the Court’s ability to strike down unconstitutional laws.

Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause)

Article I, Section 8 clause allowing Congress to pass laws needed to carry out enumerated powers; a main source of implied powers.

Supremacy Clause

Article VI principle that the Constitution and valid federal laws are the supreme law of the land, so states cannot override constitutional federal action.

Commerce Clause

Congress’s power to regulate interstate commerce; often interpreted broadly when activity crosses state lines or substantially affects interstate markets.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Case holding Congress may create a national bank under implied powers and that states cannot tax valid federal institutions; reinforced national supremacy.

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)

Case interpreting interstate commerce broadly and ruling that valid federal regulation overrides conflicting state policy.

United States v. Lopez (1995)

Case striking down a federal gun law as beyond the commerce clause in that context, showing judicially enforced limits on national power.

Categorical grants

Federal grants-in-aid with strict conditions and narrow purposes; often increase federal influence over state policy.

Block grants

Federal grants-in-aid for broad purposes with fewer restrictions; often associated with greater state flexibility (though funding still creates leverage).

Mandate

A federal requirement imposed on states; may be tied to funding conditions or require action regardless of funding.

Preemption

When a valid federal law overrides conflicting state law (typically justified through federal constitutional authority and enforced via the supremacy clause).