Unit 2 Political Institutions: Executives and Legislatures in Comparative Perspective

Head of state

The symbolic representative of a country who embodies national unity and performs ceremonial functions (e.g., a monarch or ceremonial president).

Head of government

The political leader who runs day-to-day policymaking and directs the executive branch (e.g., a prime minister or executive president).

Legislative legitimacy

Executive authority derived from maintaining the confidence/support of the legislature; the executive stays in power only while the legislature backs it.

Popular (electoral) legitimacy

Executive authority derived from being chosen by voters in a national election, allowing the executive to claim an independent mandate from the public.

Parliamentary system

A system where the executive (cabinet led by a prime minister) is drawn from the legislature and depends on legislative confidence to remain in office.

Fusion of powers

A close intertwining of executive and legislative leadership typical of parliamentary systems, where the executive emerges from and is sustained by the legislative majority.

Vote of no confidence

A legislative vote declaring that the current government no longer has majority support, typically forcing resignation or new elections in parliamentary systems.

Dissolution

Ending a legislature early and calling a new election (rules vary by country), often triggered by loss of confidence or political deadlock.

Question time / interpellation

A formal process in some parliamentary systems where legislators question executive officials, increasing oversight and accountability.

Presidential system

A system where a president is elected independently of the legislature for a fixed term and usually combines head of state and head of government roles.

Separation of powers

A structure (common in presidential systems) in which executive and legislative branches are institutionally separate and have independent democratic legitimacy.

Fixed term

A set period an elected executive serves in office (typical in presidential systems), not dependent on maintaining legislative confidence.

Impeachment

A constitutionally specified process for removing a president (or other officials), generally more difficult than a simple confidence vote.

Gridlock

Policy deadlock that can occur when independently legitimated branches (often president and legislature) cannot agree, especially under divided government.

Semi-presidential system

A system combining a publicly elected president with meaningful powers and a prime minister/cabinet responsible to the legislature.

Dual executive

An executive structure with two leadership roles—typically a president and a prime minister—who may share or compete for authority.

Cohabitation

In a semi-presidential system, a situation where the president and the prime minister/parliamentary majority come from different parties, forcing power-sharing or conflict.

Superpresidentialism

A pattern in some semi-presidential systems where the president dominates politics in practice, making the system function “more presidential” than balanced.

Legislature

A representative lawmaking body that drafts and passes laws and often plays roles in budgeting, oversight, representation, and (in some regimes) legitimation.

Bicameral legislature

A legislature with two chambers, often designed to represent different constituencies (e.g., population vs regions), which can add obstacles to passing laws.

Unicameral legislature

A legislature with one chamber; distinct from whether a system is parliamentary or presidential.

Veto points

Institutional locations where proposed policy can be blocked (e.g., an upper chamber in bicameralism), potentially slowing policymaking but encouraging broader consensus.

Party discipline

The tendency of legislators to vote with their party leadership; strong discipline can strengthen executive control in parliamentary systems and shape bargaining in presidential ones.

Proportional representation (PR)

An electoral system where parties win seats roughly in proportion to their vote share (usually in multi-member districts), often encouraging multiparty politics and coalition governments.

Plurality/majoritarian (first-past-the-post)

An electoral system where the candidate with the most votes wins a district (even without a majority), often rewarding large parties and producing disproportional seat outcomes.