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What is the economy
the state of a country or region in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services
Implications for the economy
Employment, health, crime
How to stop employment being an implication for the economy
Whether woman work (replacement carers needed) Reducing sick days
How to stop health being an implement for the economy
Reduction in NHS costs as people are treated effectively Treating addiction
How to stop crime being an implication for the economy
Reduction in criminal justice bill (costs for policing courts and custodial sentencing) Lower losses due to crime for the population
What are the methods to carry out psychological research
Experiments Observations Self report Correlations Content analysis Case studies
How are experiments used as a research method
By manipulating the independent variable (IV) and measuring the dependent variable (DV) we can show cause and effect
What is the independent variable in an experiment
the variable that is changed to see if it affects the outcome of the experiment
What is the DV
The variable you measure and don't control in any way
What is the extraneous variable?
variable which may affect your study other than the IV that might affect the results
Example of the extraneous variable
Noise, temperature, busyness of street
What is the confounding variable
Any variable, other than the IV, that may have affected the DV (results), it also varies with the IV
What is an example of the confounding variable
Everyone having the same driving experience when experimenting driving skill
What does it mean to operationalise
To specify behaviours that can be measured and manipulated
What is an example of operationalising
Before: putting lavender oil on pillow will help you sleep After: putting 5ml of lavender oil on your pillow will help you sleep in a laboratory
What is a hypothesis?
A clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated at the outset of any experiment or correctional study
What do experimental hypothesis predict
There will be a difference between the two conditions of the IV on whatever is being measured
What is a non directional hypothesis
The direction is not predicted so the groups will differ
What is a directional hypothesis
Predicts the expected direction of the result - only used if previous research shows the likely outcome so one group will do better
Example of a directional hypothesis
More people will prefer the taste of the pink lollipop rather than the blue
Example of a non-directional hypothesis
There will be a difference between the pink and blue lollipops in how much they like the taste
What are the different types of experimental methods
Laboratory Field Natural Quasi
What is a true experiment
The IV is manipulated to change the DV
What is a laboratory experiment
The researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect of the DV whilst controlling extraneous variables
What is a field experiment?
An experiment where the IV is still manipulated but it is carried out in the field (real life place)
What is a natural experiment
An experiment where the difference in the IV would have happened even if the researcher hadn't been there - something had changed but maybe not deliberately and certainly not by the researcher
What is a quasi experiment
Where the IV is not manipulated, it is something the person just is and cannot be manipulated or changed by the experiment or anyone else
Laboratory experiments strengths
Can show cause and effect Created an accurate measurement due to the control Can be replicated easily
Laboratory experiments weaknesses
Very low similarity to real life situations Tasks are artificial Aware of being studied due to artificial settings Total control of all variables is never possible
Field experiment strengths
High similarity to real life so more likely to act natural Can show cause and effect In real life environments participants may be unaware they are being studied so won't act differently
Field experiment weaknesses
Less control over extraneous variables Participants don't always know they are taking part - may be unethical Harder to replicate as the environment is harder to control
Natural experiments strengths
Ethical because nothing is manipulated Practical More applicable to real life as there is a naturally occurring IV
Natural experiment weaknesses
Can't show cause and effect as the researcher hasn't effected the IV Less control over extraneous variables
Quasi experiment strengths
Ethical as nothing is manipulated Practical as false environments aren't needed More applicable to real life Normally in controlled environments
Quasi experiment weaknesses
Can't show cause and effect as the IV hasn't been manipulated Less control over extraneous variables
What is a participant variable
Anything that may vary between participants that may affect the DV
What is a situational variable
Anything in the research situation that may affect the DV
What are experimental designs?
designs involving random assignment to groups and manipulation of the independent variable
What are the experimental designs
Independent group design Repeated measures design Matched pairs design
What is the independent group design
Using different participants for each condition - participants only take part in one condition It is randomly allocating participants to groups
What is the repeated measures design
Where the same participants are used for both conditions in the experiment
What is the matched pairs design
When different but matched participants are used in the experiment - the pairs take part in different conditions
What is the procedure for matched pairs
select appropriate variable to match pairs on
measure each participants ability and give them a score
put participants into pairs with someone with a similar score
randomly allocate each participants to each condition
What are demand characteristics
When participants alter their behaviour because they believe they know the purpose of the investigation.
How can demand characteristics be reduced
Deception - participants are unaware of the aim of the study or the conditions are it's called a 'double blind'
What is the investigator effect
Conscious or unconscious Any behaviour of the researcher that may inadvertently affect the study including interaction with the participants
Example of investigator effect
Selection of participants Asking leading questions Bias and interpretation of results
How to control the investigator effect
Randomly allocating participants to conditions Randomly order questions on questionnaire Conduct a 'double blind' study where neither participants nor the researcher is aware of the aim or which the conditions the participants are in
When do the order effects occur
In repeated measures design and it is controlled by counterbalancing
What design is counterbalancing for
Repeated measures design
What design is standardisation used in
All designs
What is a target population?
The whole group you are studying
What is a sample
Those taking part in the research. It should be representative of the population as a whole
What is a participant
An individual in a sample
What is opportunity sampling
The researcher takes whoever is easily available to use as a participant
What is a volunteer sample
Asking people to volunteer - individuals determine their own involvement in the stufy
What is random sampling
Every member of the target population has and equal chance at being picked as it is randomised
What is systematic sampling
A sampling frame is produced which has the name of participants in an order - every nth person is picked
What is stratified sampling
Dividing the population into subgroups then selecting a sample from each of these groups
What are the two key ideas of sampling methods
Representativeness and generalisation
What are the sampling methods
Opportunity Volunteer Random Systematic Stratified
What is representiveness
This means the sample selected represents the overall target population
What is generalisation
When a sample is representative of a target population we can then generalise those results and conclusions to the whole target population
Strengths of opportunity sampling
Sample is required quickly so the study can take place quickly Sample can be acquired cheaply
Weaknesses of opportunity sampling
Participants might not represent the sample There may be a research bias Sample is limited to the location it was taken from May get people who don't work or are unemployed Gives illusion of being drawn from a large population
Strengths of volunteer sampling
Participants should have given informed consent Participants may be less likely to withdraw from the study as they chose to take part
Weaknesses of volunteer sampling
May be more biased May be difficult to obtain large numbers due to advertisement
Strengths or random sampling
Avoids researcher bias as every has a chance of being picked Very representative sampling method
Weaknesses of random sampling
Almost impossible to carry out effectively unless it's a small target population May obtain an unrepresentative sample May have a biased sample
Strengths of systematic sampling
Avoids researcher bias as the researcher has no control over who takes part Fairly representative method
Weaknesses of systematic sampling
May be unrepresentative May end up being biased
Strengths of stratified sampling
Equal representation of subgroups Participants are randomly selected
Weaknesses of stratified sampling
Not all sun groups are representative May end up being biased
what is the difference between naturalistic and controlled experiments
Naturalistic observation is a type of observational study where participants' spontaneous behaviour is recorded in their own environment. Controlled observation is a type of observational study where the conditions are contrived by the researcher.
what is the difference between covert and overt experiments
Overt Observation - this is where the group being studied know they are being observed. Covert Observation - this where the group being studied does not know they are being observed, or where the research goes 'undercover'
what is the difference between participant and non participant experiments
in a participant experiment the investigator joins in with the group being studied, in a non participant experiment the investigator just observes the study
how to measure mean
adding up the scores and dividing the total by the number of scores
how to measure mode
put the numbers in order from least to greatest and count how many times each number occurs
how to measure median
put all numbers into ascending order and work into the middle by crossing off numbers at each end
how to measure range
first put all the numbers in order. Then subtract (take away) the lowest number from the highest.
how to measure percentage
dividing the value by the total value, and then multiplying the result by 100
what is the difference between aims and hypothesis
A hypothesis is a proposed explanation of something that has to be verified and tested before it can be widely accepted as fact while aim is the goal or the purpose of the process
what is the difference between population and sample
A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about. A sample is the specific group that you will collect data from
what are behavioural categories in psychology
when psychologists must decide which specific behaviours should be examined. This involves breaking the target behaviour (e.g. aggression) into components that can be observed and measured
what is event sampling
a strategy commonly used in direct observation that involves noting and recording the occurrence of a carefully specified behavior whenever it is seen
what is time sampling
a data collection strategy that involves noting and recording the occurrence of a target behavior whenever it is seen during a stated time interval.
key words for reliability
consistency, objective, standardised, test - retest, inter-observer reliability
reliability definition
results should be consistent (the same) from one occasion to another (when repeated) - the same answer should always be found
what is a way to test reliability
test retest inter observer reliability
what is test retest
participants do the same measure on different occasions - high correlation (+.8)
What is inter-observer reliability?
The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour. should be a positive correlation of (+.8)
what does subjectivity do to reliability and why
it reduces reliability as it is one persons opinion on the matter
what does objective measures do to reliability and why
improves reliability as someone doesnt give their own opinion they look at the facts
what does standardised methods and task do to reliability and why
improves reliability as all tasks and conditions are kept the same for all participants (is the IV affecting the DV)
What is internal validity?
is the experiment measuring what was intended
What is face validity?
is what was intended being measured
What is concurrent validity?
whether a new test results are the same as an established test of known validity
What is ecological validity?
whether findings can be generalised into the real world
what is temporal validity
whether results can be generalised from one time period to another
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