Research methods - paper 2

What is the economy

the state of a country or region in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services

Implications for the economy

Employment, health, crime

How to stop employment being an implication for the economy

Whether woman work (replacement carers needed)
Reducing sick days

How to stop health being an implement for the economy

Reduction in NHS costs as people are treated effectively
Treating addiction

How to stop crime being an implication for the economy

Reduction in criminal justice bill (costs for policing courts and custodial sentencing)
Lower losses due to crime for the population

What are the methods to carry out psychological research

Experiments
Observations
Self report
Correlations
Content analysis
Case studies

How are experiments used as a research method

By manipulating the independent variable (IV) and measuring the dependent variable (DV) we can show cause and effect

What is the independent variable in an experiment

the variable that is changed to see if it affects the outcome of the experiment

What is the DV

The variable you measure and don't control in any way

What is the extraneous variable?

variable which may affect your study other than the IV that might affect the results

Example of the extraneous variable

Noise, temperature, busyness of street

What is the confounding variable

Any variable, other than the IV, that may have affected the DV (results), it also varies with the IV

What is an example of the confounding variable

Everyone having the same driving experience when experimenting driving skill

What does it mean to operationalise

To specify behaviours that can be measured and manipulated

What is an example of operationalising

Before: putting lavender oil on pillow will help you sleep
After: putting 5ml of lavender oil on your pillow will help you sleep in a laboratory

What is a hypothesis?

A clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated at the outset of any experiment or correctional study

What do experimental hypothesis predict

There will be a difference between the two conditions of the IV on whatever is being measured

What is a non directional hypothesis

The direction is not predicted so the groups will differ

What is a directional hypothesis

Predicts the expected direction of the result - only used if previous research shows the likely outcome so one group will do better

Example of a directional hypothesis

More people will prefer the taste of the pink lollipop rather than the blue

Example of a non-directional hypothesis

There will be a difference between the pink and blue lollipops in how much they like the taste

What are the different types of experimental methods

Laboratory
Field
Natural
Quasi

What is a true experiment

The IV is manipulated to change the DV

What is a laboratory experiment

The researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect of the DV whilst controlling extraneous variables

What is a field experiment?

An experiment where the IV is still manipulated but it is carried out in the field (real life place)

What is a natural experiment

An experiment where the difference in the IV would have happened even if the researcher hadn't been there - something had changed but maybe not deliberately and certainly not by the researcher

What is a quasi experiment

Where the IV is not manipulated, it is something the person just is and cannot be manipulated or changed by the experiment or anyone else

Laboratory experiments strengths

Can show cause and effect
Created an accurate measurement due to the control
Can be replicated easily

Laboratory experiments weaknesses

Very low similarity to real life situations
Tasks are artificial
Aware of being studied due to artificial settings
Total control of all variables is never possible

Field experiment strengths

High similarity to real life so more likely to act natural
Can show cause and effect
In real life environments participants may be unaware they are being studied so won't act differently

Field experiment weaknesses

Less control over extraneous variables
Participants don't always know they are taking part - may be unethical
Harder to replicate as the environment is harder to control

Natural experiments strengths

Ethical because nothing is manipulated
Practical
More applicable to real life as there is a naturally occurring IV

Natural experiment weaknesses

Can't show cause and effect as the researcher hasn't effected the IV
Less control over extraneous variables

Quasi experiment strengths

Ethical as nothing is manipulated
Practical as false environments aren't needed
More applicable to real life
Normally in controlled environments

Quasi experiment weaknesses

Can't show cause and effect as the IV hasn't been manipulated
Less control over extraneous variables

What is a participant variable

Anything that may vary between participants that may affect the DV

What is a situational variable

Anything in the research situation that may affect the DV

What are experimental designs?

designs involving random assignment to groups and manipulation of the independent variable

What are the experimental designs

Independent group design
Repeated measures design
Matched pairs design

What is the independent group design

Using different participants for each condition - participants only take part in one condition
It is randomly allocating participants to groups

What is the repeated measures design

Where the same participants are used for both conditions in the experiment

What is the matched pairs design

When different but matched participants are used in the experiment - the pairs take part in different conditions

What is the procedure for matched pairs

1) select appropriate variable to match pairs on
2) measure each participants ability and give them a score
3) put participants into pairs with someone with a similar score
4) randomly allocate each participants to each condition

What are demand characteristics

When participants alter their behaviour because they believe they know the purpose of the investigation.

How can demand characteristics be reduced

Deception - participants are unaware of the aim of the study or the conditions are it's called a 'double blind'

What is the investigator effect

Conscious or unconscious
Any behaviour of the researcher that may inadvertently affect the study including interaction with the participants

Example of investigator effect

Selection of participants
Asking leading questions
Bias and interpretation of results

How to control the investigator effect

Randomly allocating participants to conditions
Randomly order questions on questionnaire
Conduct a 'double blind' study where neither participants nor the researcher is aware of the aim or which the conditions the participants are in

When do the order effects occur

In repeated measures design and it is controlled by counterbalancing

What design is counterbalancing for

Repeated measures design

What design is standardisation used in

All designs

What is a target population?

The whole group you are studying

What is a sample

Those taking part in the research. It should be representative of the population as a whole

What is a participant

An individual in a sample

What is opportunity sampling

The researcher takes whoever is easily available to use as a participant

What is a volunteer sample

Asking people to volunteer - individuals determine their own involvement in the stufy

What is random sampling

Every member of the target population has and equal chance at being picked as it is randomised

What is systematic sampling

A sampling frame is produced which has the name of participants in an order - every nth person is picked

What is stratified sampling

Dividing the population into subgroups then selecting a sample from each of these groups

What are the two key ideas of sampling methods

Representativeness and generalisation

What are the sampling methods

Opportunity
Volunteer
Random
Systematic
Stratified

What is representiveness

This means the sample selected represents the overall target population

What is generalisation

When a sample is representative of a target population we can then generalise those results and conclusions to the whole target population

Strengths of opportunity sampling

Sample is required quickly so the study can take place quickly
Sample can be acquired cheaply

Weaknesses of opportunity sampling

Participants might not represent the sample
There may be a research bias
Sample is limited to the location it was taken from
May get people who don't work or are unemployed
Gives illusion of being drawn from a large population

Strengths of volunteer sampling

Participants should have given informed consent
Participants may be less likely to withdraw from the study as they chose to take part

Weaknesses of volunteer sampling

May be more biased
May be difficult to obtain large numbers due to advertisement

Strengths or random sampling

Avoids researcher bias as every has a chance of being picked
Very representative sampling method

Weaknesses of random sampling

Almost impossible to carry out effectively unless it's a small target population
May obtain an unrepresentative sample
May have a biased sample

Strengths of systematic sampling

Avoids researcher bias as the researcher has no control over who takes part
Fairly representative method

Weaknesses of systematic sampling

May be unrepresentative
May end up being biased

Strengths of stratified sampling

Equal representation of subgroups
Participants are randomly selected

Weaknesses of stratified sampling

Not all sun groups are representative
May end up being biased

what is the difference between naturalistic and controlled experiments

Naturalistic observation is a type of observational study where participants' spontaneous behaviour is recorded in their own environment. Controlled observation is a type of observational study where the conditions are contrived by the researcher.

what is the difference between covert and overt experiments

Overt Observation - this is where the group being studied know they are being observed. Covert Observation - this where the group being studied does not know they are being observed, or where the research goes 'undercover'

what is the difference between participant and non participant experiments

in a participant experiment the investigator joins in with the group being studied, in a non participant experiment the investigator just observes the study

how to measure mean

adding up the scores and dividing the total by the number of scores

how to measure mode

put the numbers in order from least to greatest and count how many times each number occurs

how to measure median

put all numbers into ascending order and work into the middle by crossing off numbers at each end

how to measure range

first put all the numbers in order. Then subtract (take away) the lowest number from the highest.

how to measure percentage

dividing the value by the total value, and then multiplying the result by 100

what is the difference between aims and hypothesis

A hypothesis is a proposed explanation of something that has to be verified and tested before it can be widely accepted as fact while aim is the goal or the purpose of the process

what is the difference between population and sample

A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about. A sample is the specific group that you will collect data from

what are behavioural categories in psychology

when psychologists must decide which specific behaviours should be examined. This involves breaking the target behaviour (e.g. aggression) into components that can be observed and measured

what is event sampling

a strategy commonly used in direct observation that involves noting and recording the occurrence of a carefully specified behavior whenever it is seen

what is time sampling

a data collection strategy that involves noting and recording the occurrence of a target behavior whenever it is seen during a stated time interval.

key words for reliability

consistency, objective, standardised, test - retest, inter-observer reliability

reliability definition

results should be consistent (the same) from one occasion to another (when repeated) - the same answer should always be found

what is a way to test reliability

test retest
inter observer reliability

what is test retest

participants do the same measure on different occasions - high correlation (+.8)

What is inter-observer reliability?

The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour.
should be a positive correlation of (+.8)

what does subjectivity do to reliability and why

it reduces reliability as it is one persons opinion on the matter

what does objective measures do to reliability and why

improves reliability as someone doesnt give their own opinion they look at the facts

what does standardised methods and task do to reliability and why

improves reliability as all tasks and conditions are kept the same for all participants (is the IV affecting the DV)

What is internal validity?

is the experiment measuring what was intended

What is face validity?

is what was intended being measured

What is concurrent validity?

whether a new test results are the same as an established test of known validity

What is ecological validity?

whether findings can be generalised into the real world

what is temporal validity

whether results can be generalised from one time period to another