fnu 203 chapter 5 and 6 vocabulary

carbohydrates

class of nutrients that is a major source of energy for the body

monosaccharide

simple sugar that is the basic molecule of carbohydrates

glucose

monosaccharide that is a primary fuel for muscles and other cells; "blood sugar"

fructose

monosaccharide in fruits, honey, and certain veggies, "fruit sugar"

galactose

monosaccharide that is a component of lactose

disaccharide

simple sugar comprised of 2 monosaccharides

maltose

disaccharide composed of 2 glucose molecules; "malt sugar"

sucrose

disaccharide composed of a glucose and a fructose molecule; "table sugar"

lactose

disaccharide composed of a glucose and a galactose molecule; "milk sugar"

high- fructose corn syrup

syrup obtained from the processing of corn

nutritive sweeteners

substances that sweeten and contribute energy to foods

added sugars

sugars added to foods during processing or preparation

alternative sweeteners

substances that sweeten foods while providing few or no kcals

sugar alcohols

alternative sweeteners used to replace sucrose in some sugar- free foods; sorbitol, xylitol, mannitol

nonnutritive sweeteners

group of compounds that are intensely sweet tasting compared to sugar

complex carbs

carbs comprised of 3 or more monosaccharides bonded together

polysaccharides

carbs comprised of 10 or more monosaccharides bonded together

oligosaccharides

carbs comprised of 3-10 monosaccharides bonded together

raffinose

nondigestible oligosaccharide made of 3 monosaccharides

stachyose

nondigestible oligosaccharide made of 4 monosaccharides

starch

storage polysaccharide in plants; composed of amylose and amylopectin

glycogen

highly branched storage polysaccharide in animals

dietary fiber ("fiber")

nondigestible plant material; most types are polysaccharides

soluble fiber

forms of dietary fiber that dissolve or swell in water; include pectins, gums, mucilages, and some hemicelluloses

insoluble fiber

forms of dietary fiber that generally do not dissolve in water; include cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin

pancreatic amylase

enzyme secreted by the pancreas that breaks down starch into maltose molecules

maltase

enzyme that splits maltose into 2 glucose molecules

sucrase

enzyme that splits sucrose into glucose and fructose

lactose

enzyme that splits lactose into glucose and galactose

resistant starches

starches found in seeds, legumes, whole grains, and some fruits and veggies that resist digestion and are not broken down in the human GI tract

insulin

hormone secreted from the beta cells of the pancreas that contributes to a decrease in blood glucose levels

glucagon

hormone secreted from the alpha cells of the pancreas that contributes to an increase in blood glucose levels

lipolysis

process by which triglycerides (fats) are broken down into glycerol and fatty acid, which are released into the bloodstream

ketone bodies

molecules formed from the metabolism of fat that can be used as an alternative fuel for certain cells in the body when glucose levels are low

ketosis

adaptive metabolic state in which the body primarily uses fat for energy

ketoacidosis

condition in which ketone bodies accumulate in the blood; can result in loss of consciousness and death in severe cases

diabetes mellitus "diabetes"

group of serious, chronic conditions characterized by abnormal glucose, fat, and protein metabolism

hyperglycemia

abnormally elevated blood glucose levels

type 1 diabetes

autoimmune disease that results in destruction of the beat cells of the pancreas; as a result, insulin must be supplied to the affected person regularly through exogenous sources

type 2 diabetes

most common type of diabetes; beta cells of the pancreas produce insulin, but the hormone's target cells are insulin- resistant, leading to elevated blood glucose levels

gestational diabetes

type of diabetes that can develop during pregnancy

hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c)

glycated hemoglobin; blood test used to measure a person's average blood glucose over several month

carb counting

diabetes management tool in which an individual track his/ her daily carb intake

glycemic index (GI)

tool to measure the body's insulin response to a carb- containing food

glycemic load (GL)

tool to measure the body's insulin response to a carb- containing food; similar to the (GI), but also factors in the total carb content of a typical serving size of the food

hyperinsulinemia

condition in which the pancreas releases an excessive amount of insulin; over time, condition may contribute to development of type 2 diabetes

therapeutic lifestyle changes (TLC)

actions, such as avoiding excess body fat, exercising daily, and improving the diet, that promote health and reduce risk for chronic disease

hypoglycemia

condition that occurs when blood glucose level is too low

epinephrine (adrenaline)

hormone produced by adrenal glands; secreted in response to declining blood glucose levels

reactive hypoglycemia (postprandial hypoglycemia)

low blood glucose that occurs within 4 hours of eating

metabolic syndrome

condition that increases risk of type 2 diabetes and CVD

syndrome

group of signs and symptoms that occur together and indicate a specific health problem

lactose intolerance

inability to digest lactose properly because of a deficiency in the enzyme lactase

lipids

class of nutrients that do not dissolve in water; triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols

fatty acid

hydrocarbon chain found in lipids; one end of the chain forms a carboxylic acid, one end forms a methyl group

hydrocarbon chain

chain of carbon atoms bonded to each other and hydrogen atoms

omega (methyl) end

end of a fatty acid containing a methyl (--- CH3) group

carboxylic acid

organic molecule with a carboxyl (--- COOH) group

saturated fatty acid (SFA)

fatty acid that has each carbon atoms within the chain filled with hydrogen atoms

unsaturated fatty acid

fatty acid that is missing hydrogen atoms and has one or more double bonds within the carbon chain

monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA)

fatty acid that has one double bond within the carbon chain

polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)

fatty acid that has 2 or more double bonds within the carbon chain

linoleic acid

18- carbon polyunsaturated fatty acid with 2 double bonds; an essential fatty acid

alpha- linolenic acid

18- carbon polyunsaturated fatty acid with 3 double bonds; an essential fatty acid

omega- 3 fatty acid

type of polyunsaturated fatty acid with the first double bond at the third carbon from the omega end of the molecule

omega- 6 fatty acid

type of polyunsaturated fatty acid with the first double bond at the 6th carbon from the omega end of the molecule

essential fatty acids

fatty acids that must be supplied by the diet; ex: linoleic and alphalinolenic acid

arachidonic acid (AA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)

essential fatty acids; precursors to some eicosanoids

eicosanoids

group of long- chain fatty acids with hormonelike functions

prostaglandins

class of eicosanoids that produce a variety of important effects on the body

trans fats

unsaturated fatty acids that have a trans double bond

partial hydrogenation

food manufacturing process that adds hydrogen atoms to liquid vegetable oil, forming trans fats

triglyceride

liquid that has 3 fatty acids attached to a three- carbon compound called glycerol

glycerol

three- carbon alcohol that forms the "backbone" of fatty acids

monoglyceride

liquid that has one fatty acid attached to a three- carbon compound called glycerol

diglyceride

liquid that has 2 fatty acids attached to a three- carbon compound called glycerol

phospholipid

type of liquid needed to make cell membranes and for proper functioning of nerve cells; chemically similar to a triglyceride, except that one of the fatty acids is replaced by a chemical group that contains phosphorus

hydrophilic

part of a molecule that attracts water

hydrophobic

part of a molecule that avoids water and attracts lipids

emulsifier

substance that helps water- soluble and water- insoluble compounds mix with each other

choline

water- soluble, vitamin- like compound; component of lecithin

cholesterol

liquid found in animal foods; precursor for steroid hormones, bile, and vitamin D

sterols

type of liquid that has a more complex chemical structure than triglycerides and phospholipids

plant sterols/ stanols

chemicals found in plants that are structurally similar to cholesterol

lipases

enzymes that break down lipids

pancreatic lipase

digestive enzyme that removes 2 fatty acids from each triglyceride molecule

bile salts

component of bile; aid in lipid digestion

micelle

water- soluble, spherical lipid cluster; bile salts create a shell around each cluster, allowing for the structure to be suspended in watery digestive juices

fat malabsorption

impaired fat absorption; symptoms include diarrhea, fatty stools, rapid weight loss

chylomicron

type of lipoprotein formed in enterocytes to transport lipids away from the GI tract

lipoproteins

water- soluble structures that transport lipids through the bloodstream

lipoprotein lipase (LPL)

enzyme in capillary walls that break down triglycerides

very low- density lipoprotein (VLDL)

lipoprotein made in the liver; carries much of the triglycerides in the bloodstream

low- density lipoprotein (LDL)

lipoprotein that carries cholesterol into tissues; elevated (LDL) is linked to increased risk of CVD

high- density lipoprotein (HDL)

lipoprotein that transports cholesterol away from tissues and to the liver, where it can be eliminated; low (HDL) is linked to increased risk for CVD

enterohepatic circulation

process that recycles bile salts in the body

gallstones

hard particles that can accumulate in the gallbladder or become lodged in one of the ducts carrying bile from the gallbladder to the small intestine

cholecystectomy

surgery to remove a diseased gallbladder

steatorrhea

presence of lipid in the stool

gaucher disease

most common lipid storage disease; caused by a deficiency of an enzyme involved in lipid metabolism