Unit 4: American Political Ideologies and Beliefs

Political culture

Shared values, beliefs, and expectations Americans hold about government and citizenship that shape what seems legitimate in politics.

Liberty

Freedom from excessive government interference; commonly invoked in debates over speech, guns, privacy, religion, and regulation.

Equality

The belief that people should have equal standing and opportunity; can refer to equality before the law, equality of opportunity, or equality of outcomes.

Individualism

The belief that individuals are responsible for their own well-being and should be able to make their own choices; often supports limited government and/or personal autonomy.

Democracy

The idea that government should be responsive to the people, typically through elections and representation.

Representative democracy (republicanism)

A system in which citizens choose officials to make policy rather than voting directly on every law.

Rule of law

The principle that government and citizens are bound by laws applied consistently; supports constitutional limits and due process.

Political efficacy

The belief that one’s political participation matters and can influence government.

Internal efficacy

Confidence in one’s own ability to understand politics and participate effectively.

External efficacy

The belief that government will respond to public input and participation.

Trust in government

A general belief that government will do the right thing or at least act competently and fairly (broader than approval of one leader).

Legitimacy

The belief that government has the right to rule; helps people accept lawful processes even when they dislike outcomes.

Political ideology

A consistent set of beliefs about what government should do that connects positions across many issues.

Party identification (partisanship)

A psychological attachment to a political party; often overlaps with ideology but is not identical to it.

Liberalism (U.S.)

Generally favors a stronger government role in the economy (regulation, social welfare, progressive taxation) and protection/expansion of civil liberties and rights.

Conservatism (U.S.)

Generally favors a more limited government role in the economy (lower taxes, less regulation, reliance on markets) and often emphasizes tradition and social order.

Economic policy (ideology dimension)

Issue area involving taxes, spending, regulation of business, labor policy, and social welfare programs.

Social policy (ideology dimension)

Issue area involving civil rights/civil liberties, family/religion/morality, criminal justice, immigration, and national identity.

Ideological consistency

Having issue positions that align across topics in a predictable pattern; strongly ideological people tend to be more politically active.

Limited government

The view that government power threatens liberty and markets/private institutions often solve problems more efficiently; often favors decentralization.

Active government

The view that markets can produce inequality and unmet needs, and collective problems require coordinated government solutions to protect rights and expand opportunity.

Redistribution

Using taxes and spending to reduce inequality and shift resources or benefits across groups.

Regulation

Government rules for businesses/markets intended to protect workers, consumers, and/or the environment.

Federalism

A system where power is divided between national and state governments; shapes debates over which level should act on policy.

National standards vs. decentralization

A conflict over whether policies/rights should be uniform nationwide or tailored by states/localities to fit diverse communities.

Framing

Presenting an issue in a way that influences how people interpret it, often by emphasizing certain values or using emotionally loaded language.

Agenda-setting

Media influence on what issues the public considers important by choosing which stories to emphasize or ignore.

Political socialization

The process by which people develop political attitudes, values, and beliefs over time through experiences and social influences.

Agents of political socialization

Sources that shape political views, such as family, schools, peers, religion, media, location/community context, higher education, and major political events.

Selective exposure

The tendency for people to choose media sources that reinforce their existing beliefs, contributing to information bubbles and polarization.

Life-cycle vs. generational (cohort) effects

Life-cycle effects are changes due to aging and circumstances; cohort effects are lasting impressions shared by those who come of age during the same historical period.

Demographics (political behavior)

Group characteristics (age, race/ethnicity, gender, education, income, religion, region) that correlate with political attitudes and participation as probabilities, not certainties.

Intersectionality

The idea that political behavior is shaped by overlapping identities (e.g., race + religion + region + class), making single-factor predictions unreliable.

Policy feedback

When a policy changes public opinion and participation by creating beneficiaries, shaping expectations, or altering incentives—so policy can reshape politics.

Ideological polarization

When policy views spread farther apart, with fewer people (or elites) clustered near the center.

Partisan polarization

When Democrats and Republicans in government (and often voters) are more sharply divided with less overlap.

Ideological sorting

When liberals increasingly identify as Democrats and conservatives as Republicans, strengthening party labels as signals of worldview without necessarily making everyone more extreme.

Political realignment

A durable shift in party coalitions (groups switching party support) that changes the electoral map and policy priorities.

Public opinion

The collection of individual attitudes about government, politics, issues, and leaders; not uniform across the population.

Issue public

A smaller group for whom a specific issue is highly important, often influencing politics through intense attention and participation.

Salience

How important an issue is to a person or group; high salience increases the likelihood of attention and action.

Intensity

How strongly people feel about an issue; high intensity often predicts higher participation and pressure on officials.

Referendum

A direct vote in which a policy is submitted to the public to accept or reject legislation, measuring opinion on a specific issue.

Public opinion polls

Surveys that estimate what a larger population thinks by questioning a smaller sample.

Sampling error (margin of error)

The expected amount poll results may differ from true population opinion due to random chance in sampling (often reported as ± a margin).

Polling bias (common sources)

Systematic errors from non-representative samples or survey design, including sampling bias, nonresponse bias, question wording/order effects, social desirability bias, and push polling.

Linkage institutions

Channels that connect citizens to government—political parties, elections, interest groups, and the media—through which opinion influences policy.

Models of representation (delegate, trustee, politico)

Delegate: follow constituent preferences; Trustee: use personal judgment; Politico: switch styles depending on the issue and political context.

Mandate theory

The claim that an election victory gives a winner public endorsement to carry out their platform; often contested because votes reflect many motives and issues.

Veto points

Institutional opportunities to block policy change (e.g., separation of powers, checks and balances, Senate rules), which can prevent even popular policies from passing.