2. Colliding Cultures

Both sides of the Atlantic were transformed by the Columbian Exchange.

European population boom was enabled by Virginia.
Spain benefited immediately from the Historical Society.

Spain used its new wealth to gain an advantage over other European nations.

Portugal, France, the Netherlands, and England raced to the New World to match the gains of the Spanish.

Europeans were able to create settlements all along the western rim of the Atlantic world due to the ravages of disease and the possibility of new trading relationships.

Spain would lose its position in the world at the end of the 17th century.

A great collision of cultures began with the beginning of an age of colonization.

Europeans began arriving in the United States in the hopes of establishing religious and economic dominance in a new territory.

La Florida was named after Juan Ponce de Leon.

Between 150,000 and 300,000 Native Americans were found by him.

Two and a half centuries of contact with European and African peoples decimated Florida's indigenous population.
European explorers had hoped to find wealth in Florida, but reality never aligned with their imaginations.

Spanish colonizers fought with Florida's Native peoples and other Europeans in the first half of the 16th century.

Sir Francis Drake burned the wooden settlement in 1586.

Spain's reach in Florida was extended from the mouth of the St. John's River south to the vicinity of St. Augustine.
The Spaniards tried to duplicate methods used in other places.
The Apalachee, one of the most powerful tribes in Florida at the time of contact, claimed the territory from the Florida-Georgia border to the Gulf of Mexico.
Corn and other crops were grown by Apalachee farmers.
The western anchor of the mission system was connected to the royal road by surplus products carried by Indian traders.
Spanish settlers established ranches as far west as Apalachee.
Florida was held tenuously by Spain.

In 1598, Juan de Onate led four hundred settlers and missionaries from Mexico into New Mexico.

The beginning of the Spanish Southwest was brutal.
The Spaniards slaughtered nearly half of the inhabitants of Acoma when they took control of the city.
Santa Fe, the first permanent European settlement in the Southwest, was established in 1610.
The dry and hostile environment made it hard for Spaniards to move to the Southwest.
The Spanish did not achieve a commanding presence in the region.
Spanish New Mexico home was home to only three thousand people by 1680.
Spain shifted strategies after the military expeditions wove their way through the southern and western half of North America and the region's population plummeted from as many as sixty thousand in 1600 to seventeen thousand in 1680.
The engine of colonization in North America was missions.
Spain was provided with an advance guard in North America by members of the Franciscan religious order.

Spanish conquest and colonization always carried religious imperatives.

Spanish friars established many missions along the Rio Grande and in California by the early 17th century.

England and France were thrown into turmoil by the Reformation.

Conflicts drained time, resources, and lives.
Millions of people died from religious violence in France.
In the New World, religious and political rivalries continued despite the decline in violence in Europe.

European monarchs invested in exploration and conquest because of the Spanish exploitation of New Spain's resources.

There were reports of Spanish atrocities that provided a humanitarian justification for European colonization.

The Indians were simple and plain men, but the Spaniards forced them to stand in the sand of the rivers for gold because they were not used to labour.

A great number of them died and a great number of them died of desperation because they were brought from so quiet a life to such misery and slavery.
Many people wouldn't marry because they wouldn't have their children slaves to the Spaniards.
The Black Legend was influenced by religious and political rivalries.
Spain's conquests in France, Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands left many in those nations wanting to break free from the Spanish influence.
Spanish barbarities were argued to be foiling a tremendous opportunity for the expansion of Christianity across the globe and that a benevolent conquest of the New World by non-Spanish monarchies offered the surest salvation of the New World's pagan mass.
Spain's rivals arrived in the New World with religious and economic motives.

The fabled Northwest Passage was sought by early French explorers.

Asia's wealth still beckoned to Europeans despite the wealth of the New World.
It appeared that the St. Lawrence River stretched into the Great Lakes.
The bodies of water were the center of French colonial possessions.

Private companies invested in French colonization.

In 1603, traders established Port Royal in Nova Scotia and launched trading expeditions that stretched as far as Cape Cod.
The future pattern of French colonization was set by the needs of the fur trade.
Quebec was founded in 1608 and is where New France was born.
French fur traders valued cooperation with the Indians more than establishing a successful French colonial footprint.
If they had been assertive in the region, it would have compromised their access to skilled Indian trappers, and therefore wealth.
Few Frenchmen went to the New World to live permanently.
Few traveled.

The depiction of New Orleans criminalized Protestantism in 1685, but all non-Catholics were forbidden in 1726 when it was in New France.

Americans were typical among Spanish and English.
Different conversion strategies were adopted by Jesuit missionar 1726, Centre des archives d'outre ies.

Spanish missionaries brought Indians into the country.

Many of the Huron people converted to Christianity and were involved in the fur trade.

Close relationships with the French would cost a lot.
The French and Dutch conflicts were disastrous, but some Native peoples maintained alliances with the French.

Pressure from the powerful Iroquois in the East pushed many Algonquian-speaking peoples toward French territory in the midseventeenth century, and together they crafted what historians have called a "middle ground," a kind of cross-cultural space that allowed for native and European interaction, negotiation The gift-giving and mediation strategies expected of Native leaders were adopted by French traders.

The impersonal European market was adapted to European laws by Natives.

The region was invaded by English colonial officials and American settlers in the late 17th and early 18th century.

The Netherlands, a small maritime nation with great wealth, achieved considerable colonial success because of the pressures of European expansion.

The Netherlands won a reputation as the freest of the new European nations after breaking away from the Hapsburgs.
Dutch women were able to inherit full estates because of their separate legal identities.

The Dutch embraced greater religious tolerance and freedom of the press than other European nations.

The English Pilgrims fled first to the Netherlands before sailing to the New World.
Merchants and skilled sailors built the Dutch empire.
The Amsterdam Stock Exchange and the East India Company were created by the Dutch, who were the most advanced capitalists in the modern world.
The power of democracy remained in the hands of a few, even though the Dutch offered liberties.
Dutch liberties had their limits.
African slaves were brought to the New World by the Dutch.
Slavery was an important part of Dutch capitalism.

Henry Hudson was commissioned by the Dutch to discover the fabled Northwest Passage in 1609.

He claimed modern-day New York for the Dutch despite failing.
New Netherland is an important part of the Dutch New World empire.
The Netherlands established colonies in Africa, the Caribbean, and North America after establishing the Dutch West India Company.
The Caribbean colonies were supported by the island of Manhattan.

The Dutch were determined not to repeat the atrocities of the Spanish.

The guidelines for New Netherland conformed to the ideas of Hugo Grotius, a legal philosopher who believed that Native peoples had the same natural rights as Europeans.
In 1626 Peter Minuit "bought" Manhattan from the Munsee Indians, despite the seemingly honorable intentions, it is likely the Dutch paid the wrong Indians for the land.
The Dutch attempt to find a more peaceful process of colonization and the inconsistency between European and Native American understandings of property were illustrated by these transactions.

Like the French, the Dutch wanted to make money.

New Netherland's central economic activity was trade with Native peoples.

Dutch traders carried wampum along Native trade routes.

The Wampum was a ceremonial and diplomatic commodity and was made by the Algonquian Indians on the southern New England coast.
The Dutch established farms, settlements, and lumber camps in order to develop their trading networks.

The patroon system was implemented by company directors.

The patroon system gave large estates to wealthy landlords, who paid tenants to work on their land.
Relations with local Indians deteriorated as Dutch settlements expanded.
The Dutch built permanent settlements in places where the ideals of peaceful colonization succumbed to the settlers' increasing demand.
Native villages and hunting lands were invaded by colonial settlements.
It seemed that peace and profit could not coexist.

Dutch colonization was crippled by labor shortages.

The colony could not attract enough indentured servants to satisfy its backers, and the pa troon system failed to bring enough tenants.
The same year that Minuit purchased Manhattan, the colony imported eleven company-owned slaves.
Slaves were tasked with building New Amsterdam, which included a defensive wall along the northern edge of the colony.
The port was maintained and the roads were created.

The formation of African Dutch families was enabled by the 2 women.

The first African marriage took place in 1641, and by 1650 there were at least five hundred African slaves in the colony.

Dutch slavery in New Amsterdam was less exploitative than later systems of American slavery, as was typical of the practice of African slavery in much of the early seventeenth century.

Some enslaved Africans successfully sued for back wages.
When several company-owned slaves fought for the colony against the Munsee Indians, they won a kind of "half freedom" that allowed them to work their own land in return for paying a large tax to their masters.
The children of these half-free laborers were held in bondage by the West India Company.
Some New Netherlanders protested the enslavement of Christianized Africans because of the reality of African slavery.
The economic goals of the colony slowly crowded out these cultural and religious objections, and the Dutch came to exist alongside increasingly brutal systems of slavery.

The rivalry between the two Iberian countries was spurred by the wealth flowing from New Spain.

The rivalry between Spain and Portugal created a crisis within the Catholic world.
The New World was divided by the pope in 1494.
The land west of the line was reserved for Spanish conquest, while the land east of it was given to Portugal.
Portugal and Spain were told to treat the natives with Christian compassion and to bring them under the protection of the Church in return for the license to conquer.

Portugal was preoccupied by colonies in Africa and India until 1530, when they turned their attention to Brazil, driving out French traders and establishing permanent settlements.

Sugar and the slave trade powered early colonial Brazil, despite the presence of gold and silver mines.

More Africans were enslaved in Brazil than in any other colony in the Atlantic World over the course of the slave trade.

The profitability of sugar or slave trading was more important than the number of gold mines.

Jesuit missionaries brought Christianity to Brazil, but strong elements of African and Native spirituality mixed with orthodox Catholicism created a unique religious culture.

The culture came from Brazilian slavery.
The cultural connection between Brazil and Africa was perpetuated by the high mortality rates on sugar plantations.

The profits of other European nations were overshadowed by the wealth flowing from the exploitation of the Aztec and Incan Empires.

The Spanish Armada would be destroyed by the English at the end of the 16th century.

Elizabeth I assumed the English crown after the Protestant Reformation.

The golden age of England included both the expansion of trade and exploration and the literary achievements of Shakespeare and Marlowe.
English mercantilism is a state-assisted manufacturing and trading system.
There was a steady supply of consumers and laborers in the markets.

The En glish population was affected by wrenching social and economic changes.

The island's population grew from less than three million in 1500 to over five million by the middle of the 17th century.
Rents and prices went up, but wages went down.

One quarter to one half of the population lived in extreme poverty.

New World colonization won support in England amid a time of rising English fortunes among the wealthy, a tense Spanish rivalry, and mounting internal social unrest.
Supporters of English colonization always talk about more than economic gains.

They said they were doing God's work.

Christianizing the New World's pagan peoples would glorify God, England, and Protestantism according to many.
The English and other European Protestant colonizers thought they were superior to the Spanish.
Supporters argued that English colonization would prove superiority.

Richard Hakluyt amassed the supposed religious, moral, and exceptional economic benefits of colonization.

The Black Legend of Spanish New World terrorism was repeated by him.
He promised that English colonization would bring Protestant religion to the New World.
Hakluyt suggested that English interference might be the only salvation from Catholic rule in the New World.
He said that the New World had economic advantages.
The English treasury would be enriched by trade and resources.

It is possible for England to find plentiful materials to outfit a worldclass navy.

He argued that expanded trade would bring profit and give work to the poor in England.

The coarse economic motives that brought England to the New World were veiled by this noble rhetoric.

The way for colonization was paved by new economic structures.
England's merchants had new plans to build wealth.
England's merchants sought to improve the Dutch economic system by collaborating with new government-sponsored trading monopolies and using financial innovations.

The first instruments of colonization were joint-stock companies.

Money-making ventures with government monopolies, shared profits, and managed risks could attract and manage the vast capital needed for colonization.
The Virginia Company was formed in 1606 by James I.

Privateering, a form of state-sponsored piracy, was one of the most successful English ventures in the New World.

Queen Elizabeth sponsored sailors to plunder Spanish ships and towns in the Americas.

One historian wrote that England practiced piracy on a scale that transformed crime into politics.

Francis Drake raided Spanish caravans as far away as the coast of Peru on the Pacific Ocean, after herried Spanish ships throughout the Western Hemisphere.
Elizabeth gave her a knighthood.
Elizabeth walked a fine line.
Spain was provoked by English privateering.
Mary, Queen of Scots, a Catholic, was executed.
King Philip II of Spain unleashed the Armada in 1588.
Spain launched the largest invasion in history to destroy the British navy and depose Elizabeth.

England depended on a robust navy for trade and territorial expansion.

England had fewer ships than Spain.
The armada was forced to retreat to the Netherlands for reinforcements.
The destruction of the armada was celebrated in England as the "divine wind".
It opened the seas to English expansion and paved the way for England to become a colony.
England was ready to take over North America by 1600.

English colonization is very different from Spanish or French colonization.

England had been trying to conquer Ireland for a long time.
Rather than trying to integrate with the Irish and convert them to Protestantism, England more often pushed the former inhabitants out of the land and left them to die.
These tactics were later used in North American invasions.

English colonization began slowly.

Sir Humphrey Gilbert tried to establish a colony in Newfoundland but failed.
John White reestablished an abandoned settlement on North Carolina's Roanoke Island in 1587 with 150 English colonizers.
White was stranded in Britain for several years due to supply shortages and the Spanish Armada and British naval efforts.
The colony was abandoned when he returned to Roanoke.

The colonizers, short of food, may have fled for a nearby island and encountered the natives.

Others say violence is an explanation.
The English were never heard from again.
No Englishmen established a permanent colony in North America after Queen Elizabeth's death.

After King James made peace with Spain, privateering held out the promise of cheap wealth.

Colonization was assumed to be urgent.
The Virginia Company was inspired by the Spanish conquests.
It wanted to find gold and silver as well as other valuable trading commodities in the New World, such as glass, iron, furs, pitch, tar, and anything else the country could supply.
The company planned to identify a river with a deep harbor away from the eyes of the Spanish.
They would find a trading network in India that would give them a fortune.

It is located close to many Indian villages and their potentially lucrative trade networks.

The location was terrible.
The peninsula was ignored by Indians because of the bad soil and the disease caused by the water.
The English built the first permanent English colony in the United States despite the setbacks.

The English had not entered a wilderness, but had arrived in a place called the Powhatan Confederacy.

Powhatan, or Wahunsenacawh, was the leader of nearly ten thousand Indians in the Chesapeake.
They created artificial parklike grassland so they could easily hunt deer, elk, and bison.
The Powhatan raised corn, beans, squash, and possibly sunflowers.
Without plows, manure, or draft animals, the Powhatan produced a lot of calories cheaply and efficiently.

The venture was backed by investors.

The colonists were unprepared for the challenges ahead and were mostly gentlemen.
They hoped for easy money, but it wasn't easy.
They would rather starve than work.
Thanks to the peninsula's location and the fact that supplies from En gland arrived occasionally, the colonists were ravaged by disease and starvation.
Only half of the original colonists survived the first nine months.

He claimed that he was captured and sentenced to death but Powhatan's daughter saved his life.

She died in England after marrying another colonist, John Rolfe.

The English survived the first winter.

The English were welcomed by the Powhatan with a high value on metal ax-heads, kettles, tools, and guns and eagerly traded furs and other abundant goods.
The Indians had little to fear and much to gain from the isolated outpost of sick and dying Englishmen.

The English continued to die despite the reinforcements.

The colony was overwhelmed in the winter of 1609-1610 after four hundred settlers arrived.
At sea, supplies were lost.

The war with the Powhatan was slow-burning.

They boiled the leather.

The graves were dug up to eat the Wikimedia.

A man was executed for killing and eating his wife.

When he was the colony's president, George Percy recalled the desperation of the people, who had fed their horses and other beasts as long as they lasted.
famine is starting to look ghastly and pale, that nothing was spared to maintain life and to do those things which seem incredible, as to dig up dead corpses out of graves and to eat them.
The bones of a fourteen-year-old girl were exhumed in 2012 and found to have signs of cannibalism.

Over the next several years, little improved.

By 1616, 80 percent of English immigrants had died.
The first American colony was a disaster.
The marriage of Pocahontas to John Rolfe in 1614 helped mend relations with the Powhatan, but the colony was still a disaster.
The Indians and occasional shipments from England kept the colonists dependent on them for food.
Tobacco saved the city.

Tobacco was described as a noxious weed by King James.

In 1617, the colony sent its first shipment of tobacco back to England.

The tobacco boom began in Virginia and spread to Maryland after the "noxious weed," a native of the New World, commanded a high price in Europe.
American colonists exported over five hundred thousand pounds of tobacco within fifteen years.
Tobacco changed everything within forty years.
It laid the groundwork for what would become the United States and saved Virginia from ruin.
Merchants and traders came to Virginia with a new market open.
Colonists came in large numbers.
They were mostly young, mostly male, and mostly indentured servants who signed contracts called indentures that bonds them to employers for a period of years in return for passage across the ocean.
The promise of land and potential profits that beckoned English farmers were no match for the rough terms of servitude.

Tobacco was a labor-intensive crop and ambitious planters, with seemingly unlimited land before them, lacked only laborers to escalate their wealth and status.

The "headright policy" was created in 1618, when the colony's great labor vacuum inspired the creation of it.

In 1619, the Virginia Company established the House of Burgesses, a limited representative body composed of white landowners.

The Virginia colonists were sold twenty Africans by a Dutch slave ship.
Southern slavery was born.

The tobacco-growing colonists expanded beyond the boundaries of the peninsula.

Conflict with the Powhatan Confederacy was almost inevitable when it became clear that the English wanted a permanent colony.
Opechancanough succeeded his brother, Powhatan, who died in 1622.
He launched a surprise attack on March 22, 1622 and killed over 350 people, or one third of all the people in Virginia.
The Indians were driven off their land by the massacre.
The governor of Virginia declared that the policy was to get the savages to leave the country.
The balance of power was tilted toward the English after the war and disease destroyed the remnants of the Chesapeake Indians.

English brought certain visions to the New World.

English people judged themselves superior to Native peoples in North America despite starving in the shadow of the Powhatan Confederacy.
The English sense of superiority was magnified by Christianity, metallurgy, intensive agriculture, and even wheat.
The English felt entitled to indigenous lands and resources when there was a sense of superiority.

The framework for the Atlantic slave trade was established by Spanish conquerors.

For a time Bartolome de Las Casas recommended that indigenous labor be replaced by Africans in order to save Native Americans from colonial butchery.
English settlers from the Caribbean and Atlantic coast of North America copied European ideas of African superiority.
Slavery expanded across the Atlantic world.
The skin color and race seemed to have been fixed.
Africans were compared to the handmaid and symbol of baseness by Englishmen.
An English essayist wrote in 1695 that a negro will always be a negro, carry him to Greenland, feed him chalk, and manage him.
Europeans embraced the idea that Europeans and Africans were different races.
The Old Testament God cursed the son of Noah and doomed black people to slavery.

In the early years of American slavery, ideas about race were not fixed and the practice of slavery was not codified.

In contrast to later American history, the first generations of Africans in English North America faced miserable conditions, but their initial enslavement was not necessarily permanent.
The first Africans in North America could only work for a set number of years before they were free from slavery, like the indentured white servants who were whisked away from English slums.

In 1622, at the dawn of the tobacco boom, Jamestown had still seemed a failure, even though Anthony Johnson had fulfilled his indenture and become a prosperous tobacco planter himself.

The tide turned with the help of ChApter 2.

Colonists escaped the peninsula and immigrants poured into the colony to grow tobacco.

The reality of New England colonies was influenced by religious motives.

Puritans dominated the politics, religion, and culture of New England, even though not every English person who moved there was a Puritan.
Many aspects of the region's history were shaped by the Puritans after 1700.

The Puritans believed that the Church of England did not distance itself enough from Catholicism after Henry VIII broke with Rome.

They mostly agreed with European Calvinists on matters of religious doctrine.
Calvinists believed that Seal of the Mas humankind was redeemed by God alone, and that the fate of sachusetts Bay was predestined.
The History Project was known among English Puritans as Davis.

Calvinists argued that the decoration of churches obscured God's message.

They believed that reading the Bible was the best way to understand God.

The Puritans were stereotyped as dour killjoys by their enemies.

The Puritans' disdain for excess and opposition to many holidays popular in Europe lent themselves to caricature.
Puritans believed in a middle path in a corrupt world.

Puritans advocated a simpler worship service, the abolition of ornate churches, and other reforms in the first century after the English Reformation.

The Puritans gained an implacable foe that cast English Puritans as excessive and dangerous after King Charles I was crowned.

Between 1630 and 1640, twenty thousand people traveled to New England to escape persecution.

The Puritans decamped to North America to reform the Church of England, unlike the small band of "Pilgrims" who founded Plymouth Colony in 1620.
The Puritans formed a community in America that would be a "City on a Hill" and an example for reformers back home.

The Puritans did not succeed in building a utopia in New England, but a combination of Puritan characteristics and external factors created a different region.

Unlike those heading to Virginia, New England colonists arrived in family groups.
When they arrived in New England, they tended to recreate their home environments.

The system of large landholders using slaves or indentured servants to grow labor-intensive crops never took off because of the impracticality of large-scale plantation agriculture.

There is no evidence that the New England Puritans would have posed such a system, other Puritans made their fortunes on the Caribbean sugar islands, and New England merchants profited as suppliers of provisions and slaves to those colonies.

New England society was less divided than any of Britain's other colonies because of geography.

Although New England colonies could boast wealthy landholding elites, the disparity of wealth in the region remained narrow.

Small farms, shops, fishing, lumber, shipbuilding, and trade with the Atlantic World made New England a broadly shared modest prosperity in the 17th century.

The region of remarkable health and stability was produced by a combination of environmental factors.

New England immigrants avoided the disease that turned the colonies into graveyards.
English settlement and relations to Native Americans were aided by disease.
The Puritans confronted the stunned survivors of a biological catastrophe, unlike other English colonists who had to contend with powerful Native American neighbors.
As much as 90 percent of the region's Native American population was wiped out by a deadly outbreak of smallpox in the 1610s.
Many survivors welcomed the English as potential allies against their rivals.
By 1700, the New England population had grown to 91,000 people from only 21,000 immigrants because of the relatively healthy environment, political stability and predominance of family groups among early immigrants.
The New England Puritans set out to build their utopia by creating communities of the godly.
Groups of men from the same region of England applied to the colony's General Court for land grants, which they divided into parts for immediate use and the rest for future generations.
The inhabitants of the town decided the size of each home lot on the basis of their current wealth and status.
The town restricted membership and new arrivals needed to apply for admission.
Town governments that were not democratic by modern standards, but still had broad popular involvement, could be participated in by those who gained admittance.
All male property holders could vote in town meetings and choose their own officials to conduct the daily affairs of government.
The Puritans believed in a God's covenant with his people.
The Church and Towns sought to resolve disputes.
People were persuaded, corrected, or coerced.
People who did not conform to community standards were punished or removed.
Anne Hutchinson, Roger Williams, and other religious dissenters were banned from Massachusetts.

Although colonization in New England succeeded, its Puritan leaders failed to create a utopian community that would inspire their fellows back in England.

They focused on the younger generation.

The jeremiad, a sermon about the fallen state of New England, became a staple of Puritan literature.

The effects of prosperity were not stopped by the jeremiad.

The popula tion spread and became more diverse.
The Puritans struggled against a rising tide of religious pluralism, but many New Englanders retained strong ties to their Calvinist roots.
On December 25, 1727, Judge Samuel Sewell noted in his diary that a new Anglican minister kept the day in his new Church at Braintrey.
Previously forbidden holidays like Christmas were celebrated privately in homes.
A number of young people of both sexes, belonging to many of them, to my flock, had had.

The sugar colonies of the Caribbean were more important than the settlements in Virginia and Massachusetts.

These colonies created a foothold for Britain on a vast North American continent because of their value as marginal investments and social safety valves where the poor could be released.
In the 17th century, religious, social, and political upheavals would behead one king and force another to flee his throne, but settlers in Massachusetts and Virginia were still tied together by the emerging Atlantic economy.
The economy grew more dependent on slave labor as a result of commodities such as tobacco and sugar.
The collision of cultures in the Americas would be complicated by slaves being transported across the Atlantic.
New understandings of human difference and new modes of social control would be sparked by the creation and maintenance of a slave system.
New cultural systems and new identities for the inhabitants of at least four continents would be created by the economic exchanges of the new Atlantic economy.

The chapter was edited by Ben Wright and Joseph Locke.

Daniels, Christine and Kennedy are authors.

Ing Cultures 53 Fuentes, Marisa J.