Section 12.1
Properties of Sound
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All matter transmits sound to some extent, but a material medium is needed between the source and the receiver to propagate sound. This is demonstratedby the well-known experiment of the bell in the jar. When the bell is set inmotion, its sound is clearly audible. As the air is evacuated from the jar, thesound of the bell diminishes and finally the bell becomes inaudible.
The propagating disturbance in the sound-conducting medium is in the form of alternate compressions and rarefactions of the medium, which areinitially caused by the vibrating sound source.
These compressions and rarefactions are simply deviations in the density of the medium from theaverage value. In a gas, the variations in density are equivalent to pressurechanges.
Two important characteristics of sound are intensity, which is determined by the magnitude of compression and rarefaction in the propagating medium,and frequency, which is determined by how often the compressions and rarefactions take place. Frequency is measured in cycles per second, which isdesignated by the unit hertz after the scientist Heinrich Hertz. The symbol forthis unit is Hz. (1 Hz 1 cycle per second.)
The vibrational motion of objects can be highly complex (see Fig. 12.1), resulting in a complicated sound pattern. Still, it is useful to analyze theproperties of sound in terms of simple sinusoidal vibrations such as wouldbe set up by a vibrating tuning fork (see Fig. 12.2). The type of simple sound
FIGURE 12.1 A complex vibrational pattern.

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Chapter 12 Waves and Sound FIGURE 12.2 Sinusoidal sound wave produced by a vibrating tuning fork.
pattern shown in Fig. 12.2 is called a pure tone. When a pure tone propagatesthrough air, the pressure variations due to the compressions and rarefactionsare sinusoidal in form.
If we were to take a “snapshot” of the sound at a given instant in time, we would see pressure variations in space, which are also sinusoidal. (Suchpictures can actually be obtained with special techniques.) In such a picturethe distance between the nearest equal points on the sound wave is called thewavelength λ.
The speed of the sound wave v depends on the material that propagates the sound. In air at 20◦C, the speed of sound is about 3.3 × 104 cm/sec, andin water it is about 1.4 × 105 cm/sec. In general, the relationship betweenfrequency, wavelength, and the speed of propagation is given by the followingequation: v λf
(12.1)
This relationship between frequency, wavelength, and speed is true for alltypes of wave motions.
The pressure variations due to the propagating sound are superimposed on the ambient air pressure. Thus, the total pressure in the path of a sinusoidalsound wave is of the form P Pa + Po sin 2πft
(12.2)
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where Pa is the ambient air pressure (which at sea level at 0◦C is 1.01 ×105Pa 1.01 × 106 dyn/cm2), Po is the maximum pressure change due tothe sound wave, and f is the frequency of the sound. The amount of energytransmitted by a sinusoidal sound wave per unit time through each unit areaperpendicular to the direction of sound propagation is called the and is given by I P 2
o
(12.3)
2ρv
Here ρ is the density of the medium, and v is the speed of sound propagation.
12.2
Some Properties of Waves
12.2.1 Reflection and Refraction λ), the reflection is specular (mirrorlike). Ifthe surface has irregularities that are larger than the wavelength, the reflectionis diffuse. An example of diffuse reflection is light reflected from paper.
If the wave is incident on the interface at an oblique angle, the direction of propagation of the transmitted wave in the new medium is changed (seeFig. 12.3). This phenomenon is called refraction. The angle of reflection isalways equal to the angle of incidence, but the angle of the refracted wave is,in general, a function of the properties of the two media. The fraction of theenergy transmitted from one medium to another depends again on the properties of the media and on the angle of incidence. For a sound wave incidentperpendicular to the interface, the ratio of transmitted to incident intensity isgiven by It 4ρ1v1ρ2v2
(12.4)
Ii ρ1v1 + ρ2v2)2 where the subscripted quantities are the velocity and density in the two media.
The solution of Eq. 12.4 shows that when sound traveling in air is incident


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Chapter 12 Waves and Sound FIGURE 12.3 Illustration of reflection and refraction. (θ is the angle of incidence.)
perpendicular to a water surface, only about 0.1% of the sound energy entersthe water; 99.9% is reflected. The fraction of sound energy entering the wateris even smaller when the angle of incidence is oblique. Water is thus an efficient barrier to sound.
12.2.2 Interference interference. For example, if two waves are in phase, they add so that thewave disturbance at each point in space is increased. This is called constructive interference (see Fig. 12.4a). If two waves are out of phase by 180◦,the wave disturbance in the propagating medium is reduced. This is calleddestructive interference (Fig. 12.4b). If the magnitudes of two out-of-phasewaves are the same, the wave disturbance is completely canceled (Fig. 12.4c).
A special type of interference is produced by two waves of the same fre quency and magnitude traveling in opposite directions. The resultant wave

