Chapter 2

As you progress through the book, you will see that our plan is to move from basic topics to general and broad ones.

Our ability to adapt to a changing environment is dependent on the central Nervous system.

The relation between biological and psychological functions is rapidly evolving.

Understanding how the human body and brain work helps us to understand many areas of psychology, such as the nature of personality, the causes of certain abnormal behaviors, our reaction to stress, and the effectiveness of some types of therapy with certain patients but not with others.

The human brain is the most complex machine ever built.

There are millions of connections that can be made among its parts.

A growing number of professionals are evolutionary psychologists.

mate selection will be examined from an evolutionary point of view in this book.

Charles Darwin took a scientific journey around the world.

Darwin wondered why nature came in so many different types.
"What may be the single most important and far-reaching scientific theory that has ever been formulated" was the result of his efforts to answer this question.
The grand plan for development contained in an organisms genes has been the subject of thousands of years of evolu tion.

Costs as well as benefits are involved in each adaptation.

For example, the benefits that derive from increased cranial capacity in humans had to be balanced against the in creased risk of mortality during childbirth; bigger heads have a greater chance of getting stuck in the birth canal, which can result in the deaths of both mother and child.
Over thousands of years, our brains have developed short cuts that allow us to make decisions about events that influence our behavior.
Some of these short cuts can lead to poor decisions.

As you read about evolution and the evolutionary perspective in the next section, here are some points and considerations from Gallup et al.

Many of the behaviors associated with adaptive benefits of selected human with these emotions have been adaptive as a result of evolution.

Researchers focus on discover characteristics that lead to the actual genetic material responsible for the physical structure or behavior under advantage in adapting to the environment in addition to studying the process of natural selection.

Chapter 9 contains more about genetics.
As you read this book, keep the evolutionary in mind.
If it can help you understand why a particular generation developed certain behaviors.

The relation between biological factors and behavior is the focus of this new term.

The term a range of disciplines implies that these scientists represent several disciplines, including psychology (es, psychology, and psychiatry that focus on the role of psychologists), biology, medicine, and others.
The most complex machine ever constructed is being studied by the researchers.
An overview of how humans relate to their environment is what our examination begins with.

In Chapter 3, we discuss several of thereceptors located in the eyes and ears.

The brain is where this processing takes place.

We may need to respond to the sensory input once we've processed it.

The brain and spinal cord are part of the central nervous system.

The right hemisphere gets input from the left side of the environmental feature, while the left gets input from the right side of the body.

First, we take a closer look at the specialized cells that are sensitive to specific types of energy.

If we think of the nervous system as a computer, the PNS would consist of the Division of the nervous system that "peripherals," such as the monitor, keyboard, and printer, which transport neural fibers into and out of the central portion of the nervous system.

The nerves that go from the brain to the muscles are involved in a chain of events.

The outer parts of the body are connected with the cNs.

The brain and spine comprise the cNs.

In ancient times, stress was used to prepare organisms for fight, which was helpful in dealing with dangerous animals.

When the sympathetic system was activated, our ancestors' bodies were pre or flight ready.

You are walking to your car at night in the mall parking lot.

You were stuck in a parking spot that was miles away from the mall because of all the holiday shoppers.

Suddenly, a figure dressed in dark clothing and a ski mask runs at you from between two cars and throws you to the ground.

The sympathetic nervous system makes a sound.
In this case, you become prepared for fight or flight.

When you were attacked in the parking lot all of the vocabulary associated with it is evidence that the sympathetic nervous system is working.

Do flash-card drills with a friend.

The major sympathetic responses are described in Figure 2-2.

Most likely associated with the peripheral, you experience all of them in this situation.
Some of these processes involve an increase in a particular bodily function, others define the word or phrase.

When the parasympathetic nervous system is used to return the body to a resting or operating state, the pupils of the eyes dilate and the heart rate slows.

The central processing unit of a computer is similar to the engine of a car.

Some of the components are introduced in the following section.

The body's information superhighway is the spine.

Information is sent to the brain and back down from the brain if it isn't processed solely within the spine.
They send information either directly to a motor nerve or up the spine for further pro cessing by the brain.

The journey all the way to the brain takes less time than the message that brings about it.

The distance between the brain and the spine is greater than the distance between the brain and the spine.

You withdrew your foot by the time the pain message reached your brain.

A stimulation causes a pain sensation.

Goodenough et al are the source of sensory messages.

The appropriate motor neurons are stimulated by interneurons.

The appropriate muscles are stimulated by motor neurons.

The foot is lifted off the glass by leg muscles.

The nervous system is important to the activities of processing and responding, but another system plays a bigger role.

The hormones produced by the glands in the body are carried through the blood flow to their target in another part of the body.

The endocrine system can be carried by the bloodstream to other parts of the nervous system.

The function of each gland is described.

Nighttime elevations in circulating melatonin levels can be explained by the fact that the pineal gland receives input from our visual pathways.

This hormone regulates our sleep-wake cycle.

melatonin levels increase as night approaches.

melatonin levels decrease as daylight approaches.

Hypoglycemia can lead to sweating, shallow breathing, and even unconsciousness.

Diabetes can result in a number of diseases.

The feedback system of the endocrine glands can be seen in the pancreas.

When you eat a meal and the food is broken down into glucose, the rise in the blood sugar level in your body is a sign that you need to eat more.

The amount ofinsulin produced by the pancreas decreases when the primary hormone cose level drops.
In people with diabetes, the body either doesn't produce the neededinsulin or the body cells don't respond to theinsulin that is present.

This small gland is located deep in the brain.

It is an important center for a wide variety of survival behaviors.
Key centers for controlling aggression include fighting, fleeing, sexual activity, and hunger.

The interplay between the nervous system and the endocrine system is reflected in the release of these pituitary hormones.

Within two months of birth or mental retardation, treatment for the thyroid hormone must start.

The differences between the sexes are due to the amount of hormones in the endocrine glands.

In some cases, the decrease in testosterone levels in the larynx can be so great that it can lead to a variety of symptoms.

It would seem easy to provide testosterone.

The diges General term refers to the sex tive system and renders testosterone useless.

There are two ways to deal with this problem.

The hormones that affect sexual and upper arms and shoulders are spread across the abdomen and never applied to the genitals.

The endocrine system is an important part of the human body and can be overlooked.

It is easy to talk about the function of the endocrine system.

When our body prepares for a fight or flight, the nervous system sends the first alarm to the sympathetic nervous system, but it is the endocrine system's hormones that keep the level of arousal up over a longer period of time.

When you are under stress, the adrenal glands make hormones that make you fight or flight.
The importance of hormones can be seen in our understanding of disorders.

We have provided an overview of the entire nervous system and a more detailed look at the endocrine system.

We will take a closer look at the smallest units of the nervous system in the next section.

The nervous system is connected to sensory and motor nerves in the spine.

The environment affects the behavior of the endocrine system.

They are ready to destroy the opponents because you want something more than a soda.

The rate of sugar release is increased.

Jack caught his hand in a tight space under the car.

Pick up the $5 bill.

Several of her friends are thinking of careers in medicine and psychology, so they decided to take a field trip to a research hospital.

Like other cells in the body, neurons have a nucleus, are enclosed in a membrane, and have an assortment of smaller structures.

Unlike other cells, neurons send and receive messages.
There are different sizes and shapes of neuron.
Motor neurons are large because they have longer distances to travel.

A large number of infarctions can occupy a given area.

The common elements of neurons are a variety of sizes and shapes.

The trees in the forest are so numerous that they have been compared to Neurons.

They can spread out and connect.
The two primary players in a neuron are the axons and dendrites.
There is a very small area called a synapse where neurons make their connections.

Like the branches of a tree, most neurons have many dendrites that receive information.

It is possible for a single neuron to receive signals from many others.

The neural signal from the dendrites to the axon is relayed by the soma.

There is only one axon in the cell body of each neuron.

The cell body contains the nucleus and materials for its maintenance and functioning.

The cell body is involved in metabolism.

The input from other neurons is integrated.

The dendrites, soma, axon, and terminal buttons are the basic structures of all neurons.

Some of the axons in the brain are very small.

The axon of a motor neuron can travel all the way to your hand or foot.

Although only one axon leaves the soma, it may branch several times before reaching its target.

The axon branches can send the same signal.

We can look at how neurons differ now that we know the structures of all of them.

The axons are one of the major differences between neurons.
The appearance of the myelin covered axons is what accounts for the appearance of the spine.
There are fewer myelinated axons in the brain and the rest of the neuron, as well as unmyelinated axons.
Short circuits between the axons are prevented by the myelin sheath, a kind of living electrical tape.

glial cells have a number of functions, including removing waste, occupying vacant space when neurons die, and guiding the migration of neurons during brain development.

glial cells are the supporting cast members of the show.
In the movies, there are scores of supporting players with small but important parts.
There are about nine glial cells for every neuron, but the cells are smaller.
The view of glial cells as supporting players is beginning to change.
glial cells can communicate with one another about the messages that travel among them The glial cells can change the signals at the point where the neurons communicate.
glial cells may play a role in learning and forming memories as a result of this new information.

They may be involved in repairing damage.

They can clean up spills of glutamate, a brain chemical that can be toxic in excess.

What happens if you accidentally put your hand on a stove?

There is a reduced chance of passing on one's component of a neuron located genes without that speed.
Even though a signal is transmitted rapidly down the axon, motor axons are at the end of the axon, so anything neurotransmitters are stored before that speeds up transmission will help.
The transmission of glial cells is up to 100 times faster than neural impulses on unmyelinated axons.

Young adults at an average age of 30 are usually affected by the axons disease.

For reasons that are not clear, site where two or more neurons interact is more common in women than in men and is more common in climates that don't touch.
The most common symptoms of Multiplesclerosis are weakness in the muscles, weakness in the limbs, and weakness in the face.
Although the impulses disease has little effect on life expectancy, it has a significant effect on a person's quality of life and can affect memory and visual spatial abilities.
Myelin sheaths are destroyed as the disease progresses.
Where the damage occurs affects the sever ity of the disease.
Damage to myelin sheaths in the brain stem can cause a patient to be wheelchair bound.

In this section, we look at how information is transmitted from one neuron to another.

In order to send a message, the neurons must be arranged in a certain way.

The most common arrangement at the end of an axon is a terminal button, a dendrite and a gap between them.

It would take more than 12 million of them to fill an inch.

Nerves communicate with one another as well as with muscles and glands.

"Neurons communicate with vesicles one another" is a synaptic source.

The signals from one neuron to the other are carried by the chemical sig in the terminal button.

When the neurotransmitter enters the next neuron, it contacts the dendrite of the next neuron.
The neural signal to be transmitted from one neuron to the next is low when the neurotransmitters attach or bind to the specially shaped receptor sites.

Depending on the type of neurotransmitter and the location of the scepter in the nervous system, one of two outcomes can be achieved.

The importance of neurotransmitters in even basic behaviors like moving is evident in the case of a 65-year-old carpenter.

Several years ago, he noticed that his fingers felt stiff and that he was starting to have slight tremors in his hands.
He was unable to work because of his condition.

Parkinson's disease is more common in men and women.

Many people are aware that boxer Muhammad Ali and actor Michael J are afflicted with this disease.
The disease is caused by the death of dopamine-releasing neurons in the brain, which makes it difficult to initiate motor movements.
People with Parkinson's disease have to pay attention to things like getting out of a chair, holding a coffee cup, and starting to walk.
Their muscles become more rigid because they are partially contracted, and other symptoms include clude tremors, slowed movements, poor balance, as well as pain, depression, and severe insomnia (Shearer, Green, Counsell, and Zajicek, 2011).

Parkinson's disease robbed him of his athletic ability.

Fox was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 1991.

The development of a cure for Parkinson's is a priority for the Fox Foundation.

Fox testified in favor of increased funding of research to find a cure for Parkinson's disease.

If Parkinson's disease results in low dopamine levels, a likely treatment would be administering dopamine to patients.

This treatment is not logical.
Do you think that the solution to the problems of Parkinson's disease is not administering dopamine?

The brain is important and must be protected.

The environment contains many substances that could be harmful to the brain.
A blood-brain barrier, a screenlike element that allows some sub stances into the brain and keeps out other substances, was developed through thousands of years of evolution.
Dopamine does not cross the blood- brain barrier, sometimes this barrier keeps out potentially helpful substances.
The barrier can let in some potentially harmful substances, such as alcohol.
L-dopa crosses the blood-brain barrier and is a building block for dopamine.
The brain uses L-dopa to make dopamine once it crosses the blood-brain barrier.
The increase in dopamine levels can lead to an improvement in the symptoms of Parkinson's disease.

The treatment does not cure Parkinson's disease.

The positive effects of L-dopa wear off as patients lose sensitivity to the treatment.
Several failed attempts to transplant fetal tissue into the brains of Parkinson's disease patients have added an element of debate and restraint.
The device stimulates the affected brain areas.

There is a closer look at some of the major neurotransmitters.

Dopamine seems to play a role in producing dependence on drugs such as amphet amines, cocaine, and morphine.

Dopamine is released from nerve cells in the brain.

Serotonin plays a role in weight regulation, sleep, depression, suicide, obsessive-compulsive disorder, aggression, and a wide range of other dis orders and behavior problems.

Compared to a control group, people who committed suicide had less dopamine in the area of the brain just above the eyes.
Zoloft, Paxil, and Prozac increase the levels of the neurotrans mitter serotonin.

The first to be covered was the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which controls activity in brain areas related to attention, learning, and memory.

This devastating disease generally afflicts older people, although some variant may occur in people in their 50s.

A 51-year-old woman exhibited mem antidepressants that affect the ory deficits and other symptoms that became much worse in a short period of time.
She was no longer able to care for herself so they were prescribed for a range.
Five years later, an autopsy revealed that the hallmark of the disease were plaques in the brain and problems.

Many of our nerves and muscles are at the junction of ACh.

When the curare enters the victim, it takes the place of acetylcholine in the brain.
Messages from the brain are carried down the nerves, but when they reach the muscles they don't get through, resulting in paralysis and death.

It is often called upon to keep the lines of communication open, engage in passing along information, and possibly play a role in learning.

The neurotransmitter seems to have a darker side.
It is possible that excessive levels of glutamate will cause neurons to die.
This could account for the loss of neurons that can occur in strokes, head injuries, and some seizure disorders.
Researchers are working on ways to keep glutamate levels in check when there are insults to the brain.

The brain and the spine are home to a wide range of inhibitory neurotransmitters.

The brain has tightly packed neurons.
The effect of excitatory neurotransmitters on these neurons is to increase the tendency to excite their neighbors.
When someone experiences an epileptic seizure, the neu rotransmitters have to be stopped.
The brain needs a balance to be created.

The following scenario shows the importance of the neurotransmitters.

Imagine removing a hot pot from the stove.
The pot holder is not thick enough to protect against the heat.
You can get the hot pot to the table without dropping it because of the pain caused by the heat.
The excitatory neurotransmitter powered the motor neurons to pull away from the pot.
If you dropped the pot, inhibition from the brain would cause a disaster.

This excitatory neurotransmitter causes physical and mental arousal and heightens our mood.

The power behind the fight-or-flight response is found in the autonomic nervous system.

Norepinephrine has been implicated in anxiety disorders.

The features of the neurotransmitters are reviewed in Table 2-1.

Refer to this table frequently to get a helpful review.

The sphinx needs to be cleared.

For a moment, think about this question and you will understand how important it is.
Before additional signals can be transmitted, the sphinxes must be cleared quickly.

Depending on the particular neuro transmitter involved, the synapse can be cleared in one of two ways.

That shows the characteristics of the major neurotransmitters.

The postsynaptic membrane can receive another signal once the ACh is broken down and the receptor sites are empty.

The rapid breakdown is a visual strategy for producing the rapid motor responses required to play the piano, type, or works best for you.

Once the neurotransmitter has produced its effect on the postsynaptic membrane, it reenters the vesicles of the terminal buttons, where it is ready to be used again.

The reuptake removes the neurotransmit ters from the brain.

Understanding how drugs affect the brain has increased our knowledge.

Some drugs increase the effectiveness of neurotransmitters, while other drugs reduce their effectiveness.
It is very likely that the key biological action takes place in or near the sphinx, regardless of the specific effect that a drug may have.

Drugs that enhance the effects down the neurotransmitter in the brain are eliminated by some agonists.

A more intense response occurs when the neurotransmitter of a particular neurotransmitter remains active for a longer period.

Enhancing the amount of precursors by destroying them.

Drug blocks are released.

Drug is a lie.

Drug can block deactivation by blocking breakdown or reuptake.

Both types of drugs can work in different ways.

The drug physostigmine inactivates the acetylcholinesterase.

The ACh is active longer.
Drugs such as physostigmine pro duce a range of behavioral effects that may include nightmares and vivid dreaming, as well as parasympathetic effects such as decreased heart rate and constric tion of the pupils of the eyes.

They can block the neurotransmitter from attaching to the receptor sites.

They prevent the transmission of neural signals by stopping the action of the neurotransmitter.
The drug haloperidol blocks dopamine receptors and reduces the amount of dopamine binding to the postsynaptic membrane.
Researchers believe that some psychological disorders are caused by high levels of dopamine.
Drugs that reduce the level of dopamine are effective in the treatment of these disorders.

The effect on the postsynaptic membrane is less than normal when the terminal buttons are empty.

This is how the blood pressure drug reserpine works.
The terminal buttons contain dopamine.
The dopamine is destroyed by anidase inside the terminal button.
Less dopamine is released into the brain.

The distribution of neuromodulators is more widespread than the release and action of neurotransmitters.

Some neuromodulators produce their chemicals that allow the release of neurotransmitters, while others prevent the release of or general effect on the release of neurotransmitters.

Morphine is one of the best-known neuromodulators.

Kevin broke his leg playing football.
The injury was so bad that Kevin had to be hospitalized.
Mor phine blocks neural signals that transmit pain signals.

The question led researchers to look for and locatereceptors that are sensitive to chemicals like morphine.

They found out that the body's natural painkilling chemicals can be found in the receptors, so they set out to identify them.
Endorphins are produced from within.
They reduce the sensation of pain and make you feel better.
Some runners experience a "runner's high" even after a long run.

The human body has different levels of a pain killer.

We now turn our relaxation into euphoria and attention to the neural signals themselves.

To understand the signals, we must look at them at the same time in the inside and outside of the neuron.

There are two reactions that may occur.

The location of the synapse and the type of neurotransmit ter determine which reaction occurs.
Hyperpolarization can be caused by the presence of ACh at the scythes located in the skeletal muscles and at the other scythes located in other parts of the body, such as the heart.

Excitatory neurotransmitters cause the cell to allow positive ion to pass inside.

The resting potential is affected by the increase of positive ion on the inside of the neuron.
The change brings the potential closer to zero.
The neuron can reverse its elec in less than a second.
The reversal along the axon is the neural signal that opium-like chemicals are talking about.

An exchange of ion is what the action potential is all about.

The ion exchange takes place along the entire axon if the axon does not have a myelin sheath.
The ion exchange can only occur if a myelin sheath is present.
The action potential arrives at the terminal buttons more quickly because there is less work to be done.
The large myelinated axons in your legs transmit action potentials as fast as 100 meters per second (224 miles per hour), while small, un myelinated axons conduct action potentials as slowly as 1 meter per second.

The action potential is being transmitted at the same time that the neu rotransmitter is being removed.

The receiving neuron can return to a resting state if the neurotransmitter is removed.
The neuron can't fire again.
The neuron can be fired when it returns to its resting state.

The rate at which neurons fire is important.

Strong stimuli cause a high rate of firing, while weaker stimuli cause a lower rate of firing.
The low rate of firing is caused by the low pressure on your hand compared to the high pressure on your hand.

The result may be just the opposite, as not all neurons respond to the presence of a neurotransmitter by depolarizing or generating an action potential.

In these cases the neurotransmitter causes additional negative ion to cross the cell membranes and enter the neuron.
When inhibition occurs, the neuron becomes more negative than it was during the resting state, making it harder to generate.
The parasympathetic system reflects this inhibitory nature.
The result is a decrease in parasympathetic activity, such as heart rate, when ACh is released.

We are ready to move on to the bigger picture after discussing the workings of the basic units of the nervous system.

We will look at the methods neuroscientists have used to investigate the structure and function of the brain.
Some remarkable advances have been made by putting computers to work in studying the brain.
The structure and functions of the brain will be looked at.

He learned something in class about you being new to your job.

The drug can cause genetic changes.

The drug will increase the effectiveness of a neurotransmitter.

The drug will cause rapid multiplication in the body.

The brain is like a muscle, if you exercise it, it will grow larger.

The model of the acteristics could be found on the brain.

According to Joseph Gall's idea on the location of various skills and characteristics to him, bumps on the skull represented well-developed skills and personality char, which he thought could acteristics, and indentations represented less developed skills and personality character.

A list of areas in the brain that he believed were responsible for the skull was identified by Gall.

For more than 100 years, neuroscientists have been trying to locate some of these locations.

They have been trying to locate language, motor movement, and sensory impressions instead of firmness.
In just over a century, the study of the human nervous system has progressed from feeling a person's skull to collecting evidence of the brain in action.

The functions of the parts of the brain that are identified are not always told.

The clinical or case study method was used in the 19th century by a French physician.

In this method, a single patient is studied intensely.
One of the few sounds he could make was when he treated a patient nicknamed "Tan".
Tan was able to hear what was said to him because his vocal system was not paralyzed.
Tan died a few days after being treated.

Today, neuroscientists use sophisticated brain scans to answer questions that were answered by an autopsy.

The left hemisphere of Tan's brain was damaged in the autopsy.
According to the study of several other patients, this area was responsible for the ability to produce speech.

One of the most famous cases of survival from massive brain injury is that of Phineas Gage.

Gage, a 25-year-old railroad foreman, was working with explosives in Cavendish, Vermont, on September 13, 1848, trying to clear a railroad right-of-way through granite bedrock.
The procedure was straightforward.
First, drill a hole by hand, then drop an explosives charge into the hole.

If you want to protect yourself against premature explosion, pour some sand into the hole.

Gage's attention was diverted from the task at hand when he dropped the iron onto the rock.
A rocket that shot through the left side of Gage's face and exited through his head was caused by the drilled hole that served as a launching pad.
Gage was not killed in the accident, but there were many problems after the accident.
Gage was an excellent worker who got along well with others and carried through with his plans after the accident.
He used gross profanity, refused to listen if what others said interfered with what he wanted, and was very angry after the accident.

Information about brain functioning is provided by the study of people who have suffered brain damage.

Phineas Gage had the most common form of brain damage in adults.
The mon cause was missed by the tamping rod.
The behavior, thought processes, and brain of a person are crucial to survival.
The size of the chologists with specialized training in the diagnosis and treatment of dis iron bar that passed through his head can learn a lot about specific functions on the left.

The 150th anniversary of the terrible accident that struck Phineas Gage was celebrated in 1998.

The measures to assess people who have suffered brain damage are shown in this figure.

Gage had a model of what he looked like.

The measures help identify the specific form of brain damage and are useful in the rehabilitation of brain damage.

The patient pictured here has suffered a stroke, and his language abilities are being assessed in order to help him communicate better.

After wars in which a large number of injuries occurred, there have been major advances in the study of the brain's electrical activity.

Increased attempts to brain waves alter those structures when abnormal behaviors are noticed is a result of advances in locating form of a graphic representation of key parts of the brain.

A majority of former National Football League players have had at least one concussion.

The risks are too high for coaches to tell players to walk it off and get back in the game.

A concussion is a type of traumatic brain injury that can change the way the brain works, according to the Centers for Disease Control.
The symptoms of concussion include headaches, nausea or vomiting, balance problems, dizziness, double or blurry vision, difficulty paying attention, and memory problems.

The stereotaxic is studying certain brain structures.

Before the inven instrument allowed researchers to examine structures that were deep in the brain, they had to remove or damage the tissue that covered them.
A fine piece of specially treated wire can be inserted into a patient's brain if the head is in a fixed position.
The electrode is thin enough that it doesn't damage the tissue as it passes through the brain.
The electrical brain can be recorded.
This activity stimulates brain activity with a mild electric current or destroys a brain area by using a strong electric current through it.
Information about the func obsessive-compulsive disorder is provided by the symptoms of disorders such as procedures.

The stereotaxic instrument can be used to inject chemicals into the brain.

These chemicals can be used to destroy brain areas.
Stereotaxic instruments have been used on a variety of animals and humans.
The risk that the operation will cause permanent changes in the patient's abilities or personality raises ethical questions.
Stereotaxic surgery is a last resort for this reason.

Neurosciences have been able to examine brain functions without resorting to surgery.

The signals from the brain activity transmitted to the EEG system are amplified by the electrodes.

The eeG participant is shown with a number of different types of brain waves.

The presence of a small electrode in the brain tells us something about what is happening in the brain waves generated by millions of people.

The alpha waves will disappear if you close your eyes and pay attention to your surroundings.

If there is damage to the brain, the waves may be absent or reduced.

Delta waves are common in infants up to 1 year of age and in the deep est stages of sleep.

The different states of consciousness associated with brain waves will be discussed in Chapter 5.

The possible presence of brain tumors can be seen in the brain's Chapter 5 discussion of narcolepsy.

Despite these uses, the EEG has limited useful observed types of brain waves because it is not precise enough to monitor local activity.

More detailed technol ogy has been developed because of the general nature of the EEG.

The method is more precise and easier to use than the traditional procedure.

Major advances have been made in the study of the brain with the advent of computers.

A computer uses measures of brain activity to create a brain image.
The way an X-ray provides an image of a bone is similar to the way a brain nique provides static or single-point-in-time pictures of brain structures.
The static images are provided by the machines.

The most recent brain scanning techniques provide ongoing or dynamic images of the brain.

A computer combines the X-rays taken from different angles to produce X-rays that are interpreted by a computer multiple brain images.

The use of radio waves and a strong magnetic field causes the spin of the waves to cause hydrogen atoms to emit a signal.

The thicker the tissue, the stronger the signal that can be interpreted by a number of hydrogen atoms.

The introduction of the cT or caT scan on the left was a dramatic improvement over X-rays.

The ability to see brain injuries and malfunction that were not visible using earlier techniques has led to major advances in research.

If you compare Figures 2-13A and 2-13B, you will see that the details produced by the scans are better than those of the computed toms.

The patient is injected with radioactive blood sugar.

The most active areas of the brain are the ones with larger amounts of fuel.
The radioactivity of various brain areas can be monitored with the help of PET.

The selection of the colors used to show brain activity is arbitrary.

They use yellow and red to show high activity, green to show average activity, and blue to show below average activity.
Depending on whether we are resting, listening to language, or listening to music, there are different levels of brain activity.
The patient needs to be con scious and able to process the stimuli that are presented in order for the scans to be useful.
The relation between the ner vous system and various mental processes has been studied by neuroscientists.

The role of various brain structures in a range of behaviors has been determined using fMRI.

The more efficient word processing regions of the brain are used more by dyslexics.
College students use different parts of the brain to answer certain types of questions, according to research using fMRI scans.
When the gantyne is about to be positioned.

Photographs of PeT scans taken while a person is resting and listening to music and language together and separately.

A high level of brain activity is shown by the red and yellow color of the scans, while a low level of activity is shown by the green and blue color.

These techniques are being used to investigate the biological components of psychological disorders.

A few years ago, this type of research wouldn't have been possible.

A construction worker may have suffered brain damage from a head injury.

You can choose from a MEG, a EEG, aCT Scan, and a PET Scan.

Write down the procedure you would recommend.

When quick evaluations are needed, magnetic resonance is not used.

The results of the brain scans are not sufficiently precise because they are not designed to detect damaged tissue.

Accident victims need quicker scans.
In this section we discuss the various methods neuroscientists use to study the brain, and now we look at what those meth ods have revealed about the structures and functioning of the brain.

Before we discuss some of the more complicated processes controlled by the brain, let's review some behaviors that don't reach the brain.

Some of your behavior is caused by reflexes like knee jerks and attempts to pull your hand out of a car door.
The time saved by restricting these behaviors to the spine had survival value, and thus they have been passed on.
We live in a changing environment that requires more than reflexes.

The information is sent up the spine to the brain.

Let's take a closer look.

The medulla, pons, and cerebellum are part of the hindbrain.

The oldest parts of the brain have important survival functions.

If our respiratory center is damaged, we can't breathe automatically because we have to think about the other parts of the brain.

Your breathing may increase when the hand-stuck-under-the-seat information reaches the medulla.

The cerebellum and blood circulation are involved in movement.

The description fails to explain how the cerebellum works in conjunction with other brain areas that initiate motor move for sleep and arousal, which we will discuss later.

Police officers use a variety of tests to determine if a driver is under the influence of alcohol.

The driver's performance on such tests is likely to be affected by the effects of alcohol on the cerebellum.

It can be affected by even small amounts of alcohol.

Drivers suspected of driving under the influence of alcohol are often asked to complete a series of tests to see if their motor coordination has been affected by alcohol.

Patients with neurodegenerative diseases that shrink the cerebellum are less accurate in judging fine differences between the pitch of two tones.

People with damage to the cerebellum are more prone to make errors when trying to detect moving objects.

These findings are not what one would expect from a brain region focused on motor coordination.

Patients can recover from injuries to the cerebellum.

Time and mal function can be regained with the removal of the cerebellum.

There is a general and subtle support function in sensory, cognitive, and affective processes that goes well beyond motor movement alone.

The reticular formation goes all the way from the hindbrain to the forebrain.

You probably didn't sleep very well when you first moved in.

You can sleep through everything now that you are used to your new environment.
The reticular forma at the top of the spine was involved in the change.
The sound of Nerve fibers passing through the refrigerator motor or air conditioner is blocked by the reticular formation in the brain, which makes it impossible for us to notice it.

The amygdala is involved in emotional reactivity.

The hippocampus is involved in emotional reactivity.

Refer to Figure 2-15 so that you know the location of each structure, and take some time to learn about them.

The neural fibers that connect the two hemispheres are also connected to other parts of the brain that play a role in motor move of the brain.

Parkinson's disease is caused by the loss of dopamine in the brain.

The convoluted outer layer structures that are involved in the regulation of emotions and motivated behaviors such as hunger, thirst, aggression, and sexual behavior can be seen in Table 2-2.

There is a large number of nerve fibers that travel from the thalamus to the cerebral cortex.

You might be wondering how sensory information gets to the correct location for further processing.

The cerebral cortex and other parts of the spine are brought to you by nerve tracts.
The brain goes to an appropriate area when it reaches the thalamus.

The sense of smell is processed in the olfactory bulb.

The limbic system has connections to other parts of the brain.

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Despite its small size, this structure deep inside the brain plays a role in fighting and fleeing.

A key role in memory is the large subcortical structure.

You may not remember if you were hit in the head on the football field or in a car accident.
You won't remember the hit to your head on the football field if consolidation doesn't happen.

The human cortex has a wrinkled and wrinkled appearance that resembles a walnuts or cauliflower.

The cerebral cortexample was stuffed in crumpling because the brain was confined within the skull.

A rat's cortex is the size of a postage stamp.

A monkey's cortex is the size of an envelope.

There are some specialized responsibilities for each of the lobes.

Here is a closer look at them.

They are easy to spot because they are large, accounting for half of the volume of the cerebral hemispheres.

Motor functions that are most important to our survival are more likely to be voted to the cortical area.
Large motor areas are devoted to manual dexterity because the use of our hands is so important to survival.

Chapter 3 has connections to the limbic system of the brain.

The largest part of the cortex was devoted to the fingers.

One consequence of this syndrome is that patients may neglect an entire side of their body and fail to engage in typical behaviors such as grooming.

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The information needed to create these maps was provided by the electrical parts of the brain.

Patients don't experience pain from the electrical stimulation because the brain doesn't have a pain receptors.

A person will move his or her left hand if an electrode is placed near the top of his or her brain.
The whole series of motor movements and brain areas responsible for such movements will be revealed if you keep moving that elec trode just a bit.

The brain map shows that most areas of the brain don't give rise to a motor or sensory response.

These areas are similar to highways in that they move memories, thoughts, and impressions, connecting them with other elements such as emotions and future plans.
A large part of the brain works in the grand saga of making associations among events, ideas, personal expe riences, strategies and people.
Many people think that only 10% of the brain is used.

This doesn't mean that these are unused areas.

The results of brain scans show that large areas of the brain are used for various cognitive tasks, and these areas are often different depending on the task at hand.
Don't be fooled by the idea that your brain isn't being used, you should give a task your best effort.

Learning, memory, and emotions are all affected by these lobes.

Damage to the temporal lobes can affect our ability to learn.
Attacks of anger and rage have been linked to seizures in the temporal lobes.
The temporal lobes' connections to the hippocampus and amygdala are important in learning, memory, and emotion.

The occipital lobes are supposed to process visual information.

We process and understand visual information through highly specialized neurons, even though we don't see it through the eyes.
Some neurons are acti vated by vertical lines, others by horizontal lines, and still others by lines of a cer tain length.
Some neurons only respond to certain colors or shapes.

The first line of neurons process simple visual information such as contrast and car ries this information to a second layer of neurons that processes shapes and then on to additional layers of neurons for complete processing of the incoming visual input.

Half of the visual field is sent to the occipital lobes.

Information from the right visual field is sent to the left occipital lobe.
There are many con nections between the two occipital lobes, so visual information is processed holistically unless there is some type of damage.
The result is blindness in the opposite visual field if only one occipital lobe is damaged.

Consider the case of Dr. P., a music teacher with visual problems.

He took parking meters for children.
The problem was caused by a tumor in the visual area of his brain.

The existence of a complex and continually developing language is one of the key differences between humans and lower animals.

As a result, neuroscientists have focused on the brain structures responsible for language as well as the problems that develop when these areas are dam aged.
In the majority of the population, the left hemisphere dominates for language and speech.

Damage to either or both areas can affect a person's hearing and language abilities.

The brain that is responsible for understanding what others say to them is located at the back of the people's lobes.

In contrast to the speech of people understanding or producing spoken words, damage to Wernicke's area results in meaningless speech.

Damage to the right hemisphere is involved in apraxias.

People can't display emotions.

The two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex are connected by the corpus callosum, which is about the size of a small banana.

The psychologists wondered what would happen if the communication between the two hemispheres was cut.

It was not known how this operation would affect humans.

In the early 1960s, two neurosur geons, Philip Vogel and Joseph Bogen, performed a complete commissurotomy on a former paratrooper who had been experiencing severe and life-threatening seizures.
The operation succeeded in controlling the seizures.
The neurosurgeons speculated that the failure to fully sever the corpus callosum was to blame for the failed operations that had failed to control seizures.
Even though we don't know why this operation controls seizures, it is still performed as a last resort in severe cases.

Initially, no other changes were noticed in patients who had this operation, but how ever, research by Roger and Michael produced some remarkable findings.

The two hemispheres appeared to be doing different things in people with a severed callosum.
Conflicts usually occur shortly after surgery as the separated hemispheres learn to work together.
The interhemispheric transfer is blocked by severing the entire callosum.

There is a logic behind the testing procedure.

If you look at the pathways, you can see that when the person focuses on the center of the visual field, the information sent to the left visual field goes only to the right hemisphere.
Information presented to only one hemisphere is quickly transmitted to the other.
The two hemispheres of the brain can't communicate in a person with a severed corpus callosum.

The image hemisphere can't be transferred to the right hemisphere because of the severed right callosum.

The conclusion that the left hemisphere is involved in speech and language production is supported by studies.

When you see a cup of coffee or a baseball in your right eye, the information is processed in the left hemisphere.
The left hemisphere is logical, sequential, and analytical.

You must have undergone this operation.

A technician will present a visual stimulation to either your right or left visual field while you are seated in the testing appara tus, wearing a special set of glasses.
Before reading further, write down your answers and explain them.

Suppose we take a picture of a baseball in your field and ask you to name it.

The visual input ends in the left hemisphere if we trace it.
The left hemisphere has responsibility for naming the object.
The right hemisphere would be involved if we switched fields.
Patients with a severed corpus callosum can't name an object if it is presented to the right visual field, and thus making its way to the left hemi sphere.

The left hemisphere's dominance for language is complemented by the right hemisphere's specialization for visuospatial processing.

Part-whole relations, spatial relation ships, apparent motion detection, and mental rotation are all tasks that the right hemisphere is better at.
Adding emotional content to our speech, recognizing people's faces, and selecting objects is essential for the right hemisphere's limited language functions.

X was transmitted to the patient's left hemisphere from the right side of the screen.

The patient is able to identify the object by touching it from a group.

The patients with split-brains do not suffer deficits in intelligence.

The brain has the characteristic of "neuroplasticity", which is contrary to the belief that the brain cannot regenerate or develop new cells.

The ability of the neocortex to acquire new functions as a result of teracting with the environment is referred to as the "neuroplasticity of the brain".
If the left temporal lobe of a small child is damaged, it will no longer be able to comprehend language.

The forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, and various lobes are included.

Brain differences will result from training in a specific ability.

Humans don't come into this world with a fully developed, hard-wired brain, which is one reason the brain can change in response to experiences.

Young mam mals are cared for by adults.
The evolutionary pro cess did not have to produce a brain with specialized circuits.
It could produce a larger brain with an abundance of neuralcuits that could be changed by experience.

We looked at the biological foundations of psychology in this chapter.

We have seen how these systems respond to stimuli.
We will look more closely at these processes in the next chapter.
The raw materials of psychological functioning can be found in the ways in which specialized receptors in the nervous system sense stimuli and how the resulting sensations are processed.

The split-brain operation uses a chart of a person's brain waves.

You are sleeping much later in the day.

Two people will be injected with a radioactive form of sugar.

Which part of the brain is responsible for breathing?

The operation was done to reduce the symptoms.

The two hemispheres can be separated through surgery.