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Americans experienced a wave of patriotism after the War of 1812.

A post war surge of prosperity gave a widespread sense of optimism, and they had won their independence from Britain for a second time.

In a message to Congress in the late 19th century, President James Madison revealed how the war had changed his views on the role of the federal government.

Madison and other leading southern Republicans acted like nationalists rather than states' rights sectionalists. Madison supported a larger army and navy, a new national bank, and tariffs to protect American manufacturers from foreign competition. One New Englander commented after Madison's speech that the Republicans had out-Federalized Federalism.

The nation's finances fell into a mess after the First Bank of the United States' charter expired. States began chartering local banks with little or no regulation, and their paper money flooded the economy with different currencies.

It was to handle all federal government funds without charge, lend the government up to $5 million upon demand, and pay it $1.5 million in return for issuing paper money and opening branches.

The debate over the B.U.S. helped set the pattern of regional alignment. The national bank was opposed by the west because it caters to eastern customers.

Clay argued that the new eco nomic circumstances made the national bank indispensable. The New England Federalists were worried about the financial power of Philadelphia. At the same time that unexpected events would steer Calhoun away from economic nationalism and towards a defiant embrace of states' rights, Webster would return to Congress as the champion of a much stronger national government.

The long controversy with Great Britain over shipping rights convinced most Americans of the need to develop their own manufacturing sector to end their dependence on imported British goods.

When America lost access to European goods during the War of 1812, efforts to develop iron and textile industries in New York and New England accelerated.

British companies flooded the U.S. markets with less expensive products, which hurt their American competitors. In order to protect their infant industries from unfair British competition, northern manufacturers petitioned Congress for federal tariffs.

sectional grievances were worsened by the fact that tariffs benefited some regions more than others. The debate over tariffs dominated national politics throughout the 19th century because they provided much of the annual federal revenue and because they benefited manufacturers rather than consumers.

The few southerners who voted for the tariffs hoped that the South would become a manufacturing center. Within a few years, New England's manufacturing sector would roar ahead of the South, leading to an about- face and begin opposing tariffs.

The National Road connecting the Midwest with the East Coast was one of the ways the nation needed a network of roads.

The House was urged to fund internal improvements.

The western part of the country badly needed transportation infrastructure. New England was expected to get the least from such projects.

Chief Justice John Marshall strengthened the powers of the federal government at the expense of states' rights in the Supreme Court.

The power of the federal government was strengthened by two major decisions made by the Supreme Court.

The charters are subject to modification.

New England refused to pay state taxes on B.U.S.

The state indicted a person. The Supreme Court ruled that Congress had the authority to charter the B.U.S. The states did not have the right to tax the national bank.

Marshall declared a federal law unconstitutional because of one great principle.

The watercolor of an early steamboat was painted by a Russian diplomat who was fascinated by early technological innovations and the unique culture of America.

The New York legislature granted Robert Fulton and Robert R. Liv ingston sole rights to operate steamboats in the state. The exclusive right to ferry people and goods up the Hudson River between New York and New Jersey was given by Fulton and Livingston. Under a federal license, Thomas was able to operate ships that competed with Ogden.

Marshall ruled that the federal license issued to Gibbons was in conflict with the state monopoly granted to Ogden.

John Marshall's judicial nationalism was detested by Thomas Jefferson.

Henry Clay, the powerful young Kentucky con gressman who would serve three terms as Speaker of the House before becoming a U.S. senator, came up with the term. He said, "I don't know of any South, North, East, or West that I owe my loyalty to."

Clay wanted to give each region its top economic priority. He argued that high tariffs on imports were needed to block the sale of British products in the United States and protect new industries in New England and New York from unfair foreign competition.

To convince western states to support tariffs, Clay first called for the fed eral government to use tariffs to build infrastructure in the frontier West.

His American System would raise prices for federal lands sold to the public and distribute the revenue from the land sales to the states to help finance more roads, bridges, and canals. Clay supports the creation of a national currency and the regulation of the state and local banks.

Clay's program depended on the region's willingness to compromise. It worked for a while. Critics argued that higher prices for federal lands would discourage western migration and that tariffs benefited the northern manufacturing sector at the expense of southern and western farmers.

The Second B.U.S. was feared by many westerners and southerners.

The senator predicted that cash- strapped western towns would be at the mercy of the national bank.

James Monroe was James Madison's successor at the end of his presidency. Monroe defeated King in the electoral college by a large margin. The "Virginia dynasty" of presidents continued.

Mon roe embarked on a goodwill tour of New England after he was inaugurated. The heading "Era of Good Feelings" became a popular label for Monroe's administration.

He was wounded as he began holding a Virginia planter.

After studying law under Jefferson, Monroe served as a representative in the Virginia Assembly, as governor, as a representative in the Confederation Congress, as a U.S. senator, and as U.S. minister (ambassador) to Paris, Lon don, and Madrid. He was both secretary of state and secretary of war during the War of 1812.

The Era of Good Feelings was ended by the financial Panic of 1819 and the political conflict over statehood for Missouri.

It was caused by too many people trying to get rich too quickly.

European demand for American products soared after the War of 1812, leading farmers and planters to increase production.

The federal government sold vast tracts of public land, which spurred reckless real estate speculation by people buying large parcels with the intention of reselling them. Good weather in Europe led to a spike in crop production, which reduced the need to buy American commodities. The prices for American farm products went down.

The British textile industry stopped buying American cotton in favor of cheaper cotton from other parts of the world, causing the Panic of 1819. As the price of cotton fell and the flow of commerce slowed, banks began to fail and the unemployment rate went up. The world demand for American goods was reduced because of cotton prices. Most of the owners of new factories and mil s in New England, New York, and Pennsylvania struggled to find markets for their goods and to fend off more experienced foreign competitors.

distrust of banks and bank ers emerged as the financial panic deepened. The paper money bubble is burst by Thomas Jefferson. This is what you and I and every reasoning man do.

The financial panic became a depression due to other factors. Land speculators had recklessly borrowed money to purchase more land. Both speculators and settlers saw their income plummet because of the decline of land values.

The reckless lending practices of the new state banks compounded the problems. More paper money was issued by the banks. The B.U.S. was caught up in the easy credit mania.

The Baltimore branch of the B.U.S. was found to have extensive fraud in 1819. The scandal led to the appointment of a former congressman as the bank's new president. Cheves restored confidence in the national bank by forcing state banks to keep more gold coins in their vaults. State banks put pressure on their debtors, who found it harder to get new loans.

Many blamed the B.U.S. for the depression that lasted three years. Americans in the South and the West remained critical of the national bank after the panic subsided.

In the midst of the financial panic, there was a cloud of controversy about expanding slavery into the western territories. The greatest political debate of the 19th century was created by the possibility of western territories becoming "slave states".

The United States was at risk of disinte grating over the future of slavery. The country had an equal number of slave and free states by 1819. Slavery north of the Ohio River and south of the Ohio were banned by the Northwest and Southwest Ordinances.

France and Spain colonized the area west of the Mississippi River. Slaves were brought into the Missouri Territory through St. Louis.

The first state west of the Mississippi River would be it.

James Tallmadge Jr., a New York Republican, proposed a resolution to ban the transport of slaves into Missouri.

Slaveholders in the south were enraged by Tallmadge's resolution because they had developed a profitable business selling slaves to traders in the western territories. They believed that any attempt to restrict slavery in the western territories could lead to a civil war.

The balance of power in the Senate was worried that the addition of Missouri as a free state would tip it against the slave states. The Tallmadge Amendment was passed on an almost strictly sectional vote by the House. Along sectional lines, the Senate rejected it.

Maine, which was part of Massachusetts, applied for statehood. The Senate voted in 1820 to admit Maine as a free state and Missouri as a slave state in order to maintain the balance between free and slave states.

Slavery would continue in the Arkansas Territory but not in the rest of the area west of the Mississippi River. The Thomas Amendment passed by a small margin.

Despite the requirement that blacks and mulattoes are included in the constitution, the Clay convention excludes free eight.

Clay is pictured in a painting by Charles Willson Peale.

The deal to admit Missouri as a state was in danger until Speaker of the House Henry Clay created a "second" Missouri Compro mise in which the legislature would never deny free blacks their constitutional rights. Missouri became the twenty- fourth state and the twelfth where slavery was allowed on August 10, 1821.

The Missouri Compromise was praised by the Nationalists.

Instead, it hardened positions on both sides and revealed a widening divide in the country, with the Northeast dominated by shipping, commerce, and manufacturing and the Midwest centered on small farms.

John Quincy Adams, son of former president John Adams, worked to clarify and expand the nation's boundaries. America's dominance in the Western Hemisphere was something he wanted Europeans to recognize.

The War of 1812 ended with the Treaty of Ghent, but it left several disputes between the United States and Great Britain. The Rush- Bagot Treaty of 1817 and the Convention of 1818 were negotiated by Adams.

The Rush- Bagot Treaty limited the number of warships on the Great Lakes. The convention was important. The northern boundary of the Louisiana Purchase was extended along the 49th parallel from Minnesota to the Rockies. The British and Americans would occupy the Oregon Country west of the Rockies.

Another disputed boundary was in western Florida.

Spanish control over Florida in the early 19th century was more of a technicality than an actuality. Pinckney's Treaty of 1795 required Spain to keep Indians out of south Georgia, but it was no longer a power.

In the present day Florida Panhandle, U.S. soldiers clashed with runaway slaves in 1816.

Five Indians were killed when Americans burned a vil age on the border.

The Secretary of War ordered General Andrew Jackson to lead an army from Tennessee into Florida, sparking the First Seminole War. Jackson was told not to attack Spanish forts. If the United States wanted Spanish Florida, Jackson wrote President Monroe that he could conquer it in 60 days.

Jackson's force of 2,000 federal soldiers, volunteer Tennes, and Indian allies moved into Spanish Florida in the early 19th century. They destroyed several vil ages along the Suwannee River in April.

Two British traders were court martialed for provoking Indian attacks. This is one of the earliest depictions of African Americans and Native Americans fighting together.

Monroe's cabinet was alarmed by Jackson's order to execute the British troublemakers. Jackson kept moving. He established a provisional American government after capturing the Spanish cap ital of West Florida.

Spain demanded the return of its territory and that Jackson be punished for violating international law. Monroe's cabinet was prepared to reject Jackson's actions. The stand that would later cause bad blood between them was taken by Calhoun, who criticized Jackson for disobeying orders.

Jackson was a hero to most Americans. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams realized that Jackson's unauthorized conquest of Florida had strengthened his own hand in negotiating with the Spanish to purchase the territory.

Florida became a state in 1845.

The western boundary of the Louisiana Territory was clarified by the treaty. The boundary would run from the Gulf of Mexico north to the 42nd parallel and then west to the Pacific coast. The United States ended on the continent.

George Washington believed that the United States should avoid "entangling" itself in European affairs. It wouldn't become involved in wars supporting democratic movements abroad.

She supports the freedom and independence of al.

The most important diplomatic policy created by President Monroe and Secretary of State Adams was to prevent future European colonialism in the Western Hemisphere. The Spanish, British, French, Portuguese, Dutch, and Russians still control colonies in the Americas.

The French colony of Spain and Portugal was a consequence of the Napoleonic Wars. The independence movements in the Americas were triggered by the turmoil in those two nations. In less than a decade after the flag of rebellion was raised in Ecuador, Spain had lost most of its empire in the Americas. The islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico, as well as the colony of Santo Domingo on the island of Hispaniola, are still under Spanish control.

Rumors reached America in 1823 that the monarchs of Europe were going to help Spain recover its Latin American colonies. The British foreign minister told the United States that they should oppose any new incursions by European nations. If the London government would recognize the independence of Latin America, Monroe agreed.

European involvement in the hemisphere, stressing that it would be more candid as well as more dignified for America to ban further European inter vention than to tag along with a British statement.

Monroe agreed.

There was a mixed reaction to the Monroe Doctrine. Others were not impressed at all. The validity of the Monroe Doctrine was recognized by nationalism and sectionalism. Czar Alexander I knew the U.S. Navy couldn't protect its shores, so he dismissed it with contempt. The Russians claimed to own the Oregon Country.

The Monroe Doctrine does not have an official standing in international law. It was an important statement of American intentions to prevent European involvement in the Western Hemisphere and an example of the young nation's determination to take its place among the world's powers. Not a single Latin American nation has lost its independence since the announcement.

The United States became a one-party political state after the War of 1812. The party was killed by the refusal of the Federalists to support the war. Monroe was reelected without opposition.

The Democratic Republican party was dominant for the moment, but it was about to be wiped out by the Federalists. If Monroe's first term was the Era of Good Feelings, his second was the Era of Bad Feelings, as sectional disputes erupted into violent disputes that gave birth to a new political party, the Democrats, led by Andrew Jackson.

Jackson was born along the border between the Car olinas and was raised by a single parent. His father was killed in a farm accident three weeks before Andrew was born, forcing his mother to work as a maid while raising three sons.

Anna Claypoole painted the Jackson general during the Revolution. Hugh, one of Peale's military men in 1819, died of heat exploits in Florida. She captured exhaustion during a battle and Robert, Jackson's confident demeanor that died while trudging home from a prisoner made him so popular.

Andrew was captured in 1781. The officer slashed Andrew with his sword, leaving him with scars on his head and hand.

Elizabeth Jackson, who helped nurse injured American soldiers, died of the disease after he was released. Her son hated the British.

After the Revolution, Jackson went to Charleston, South Carolina, where he learned to love gambling, fine clothes, and racehorses. He earned a license to practice law after moving to Salisbury, North Carolina. He enjoyed his life.

Jackson moved to Nashville at the age of twenty one. He fell in love with Rachel Donelson Robards, a beautiful married woman with whom he lived before she was divorced from her husband.

Jackson had a quick temper. He liked a good fight.

He claimed that Charles Dickinson insulted his wife, Rachel, and that his son had not paid off a racing bet. Jackson let Dickinson fire first even though he was the best shot in Tennessee.

The future president received a bullet in his chest that almost killed him. He calmly took aim and killed his opponent.

When Tennessee became a state, voters elected Jackson to the U.S. House and later to the Senate, where he served only a year before returning to Tennessee and becoming a judge. Jackson made a lot of money buying and selling horses, land, and slaves. He owned 100 slaves on his cotton plantation.

He could be a cruel master. Jackson was the commander of the Tennessee militia when he wasn't farming or raising racehorses.

Jackson presiding over the nation was cringed at by many American political leaders. Thomas Jefferson said that his passions were terrible. The "Eastern elite" tried to maintain control of American politics.

He commented that he never trusted a man who could only think of one way to spell a word.

When James Monroe started his second presidential term in 1821, leading Democratic Republicans began positioning themselves to be the next president, with three of them being secretaries of war, William H. Crawford and John C. Calhoun. Henry Clay was the Speaker of the House. Andrew Jackson was elected to the Senate in 1823. The emergence of viable candidates showed how fractured the Republican party had become.

Jackson was chosen by the Tennessee legislature to succeed Monroe. Jackson was endorsed for president by the Pennsylvania Republicans two years later. Clay was nominated by the Kentucky legislature in 1822. Adams was nominated by the Massachusetts legislature. Crawford, a cotton planter from Georgia, was nominated by a group of Republican congressmen.

Crawford's friends talked about his devotion to states' rights and strict construction of the Constitution. Clay promoted the economic nationalism of the American System. Adams shared Clay's belief that the national government should finance internal improvements to spur economic development, but he was less enthusiastic about tariffs.

Jackson said he was the champion of the common people and the foe of the entrenched social and political elite. He said he represented the "old republicanism" of Thomas Jefferson. Jackson didn't have the education, polish, and prudence to be president according to Jefferson. Jefferson and Crawford were partners in 1824.

Jackson was attractive to voters of Irish background because he was a military hero. He was beloved for having defeated the English in the Battle of New Orle ans. Many Irish immigrants associated aristocracy with centuries of English rule over Ireland with his nativist commitment to those he called the "common men".

The 1824 presiden tial election results were not conclusive. Jackson won the popular vote with 99 votes, Adams 84, Crawford 41, and Clay 37. Jack son did not have the majority of votes.

Henry Clay lags behind as John Quincy Adams, William Crawford, and Andrew Jackson stride to the finish line.

By the time the House could convene, Crawford had suffered a stroke. The election was between Adams and Jackson.

The Speaker of the House would be determined by Henry Clay's influence. Jackson was dismissed as a "military chieftain" by the man.

Clay and Adams disliked each other, but the nationalist Adams supported most of the policies that Clay wanted. Clay expected Adams to name him secretary of state, the office that usually leads to the White House. They made a deal on January 9, 1824. The House of Representatives elected Adams.

Adams' administration was crippled before it began by the controversial victory. Politics had entered an era of bad feelings.

Jackson's supporters launched a campaign to undermine the Adams administration and get their hero elected in 1828. Crawford's supporters joined the Jackson camp, as did the new vice president.

Adams was one of the smartest men to enter the White House. He had been ambassador to four European nations, a U.S. senator, and an outstanding secretary of state. He drafted the Monroe Doctrine and helped negotiate the end of the War of 1812.

Adams married Louisa Johnson, a woman who became his best ambassador at social gatherings despite his cruel treatment of her.

John Quincy Adams was one of the most ineffectual presidents because of the controversy surrounding his deal with Henry Clay. Adams was strong- willed and fiercely intelligent, but socially awkward and a stubborn moralist. He didn't have the common touch and politician's gift for compromise.

His sour personality was shaped by the tragedies of his family. He suffered from bouts of depression that reinforced his grim self-righteousness and tendency toward self- pity, qualities that did not endeared him to others. Adams must be taking acid with his tea according to the poet's son.

Andrew Jackson was repre sented by Adams. He was the first president to have his picture taken.

Although Adams was a learned man, poet Walt Whitman wrote that he was a virtue.

Adams wanted to create an activist federal government. His first State of the Union message included a grand plan for national development that became a political disaster. His vision of an energetic federal government funding an array of improvement projects outdid the plans of Alexander Ham ilton, James Monroe, and Henry Clay.

New roads, canals, harbors, and bridges should be financed by the federal government in order to create a national trans portation network.

Reaction was very negative. Congress revealed that it would not approve any of Adams' proposals after newspapers accused him of being a tyrant. Adams's confidence was shattered by the disastrous start.

The Democratic- Republican party split due to Adams's effort to expand the powers of the federal government.

The people who agreed with the economic nationalism of Adams and Clay began calling themselves National Republicans.

The opposition was made up of people who supported Andrew Jackson. They were strongest in the South and West, as well as among the working class in large eastern cities.

Martin Van Buren of New York was one of the first professional state organizers to be recruited by the Democrats.

The Democrats convinced voters that their loyalties should be to their party rather than a particular candidate.

Party loyalty was the most powerful weapon the Democrats had against the "privileged" aristocracy.

Jackson charged that Adams was behaving more like a king than a president. Jackson said that if the president's schemes for expanding government power were not stopped by the voice of the people, it must end.

The 1828 poster claims Andrew Jackson is a man of the people.

Adams's opponents wanted to use the tariffs issue against him. The anti- Adams congressmen introduced a new bill to help Jackson. Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, Kentucky, and Missouri were places where Jackson needed support and where the bill placed duties on imported raw materials.

The measure was condemned as the "Tariff of Abomina tions" by the cotton states of the Lower South.

Both sides launched personal attacks. Jackson was denounced by Adams's supporters as a barbarian, a gambler, and a slave trader who thrived on confrontation and violence and whose fame rested upon his reputation as a cold- blooded killer.

Their most scurrilous charge was that Jackson had been unfaithful to his wife. They lived together as husband and wife for two years because she thought her divorce from her first husband was complete. After the divorce was official, Andrew and Rachel had a new life together.

Adams was condemned by the Jacksonians as a career politician who had never had a real job and had been corrupted in the courts of Europe.

Jackson was beloved by farmers and working men as the "people's champion", and he had the trust of the southern political elite as a planter, lawyer, and slaveholder. He was in favor of a small federal government, individual liberty, an expanded military, and the assumption that white people were superior to people of color. He was a nationalist who was committed to preserving the Union.

Jackson was helped by a growing spirit of democracy in which many viewed Adams as a snob. He promised to fight against the power of the wealthy and powerful as president.

Jackson used the animal as a symbol for his "tough" campaign when Adams's supporters began referring to him as a "jackass".

The symbol of the Democratic party was the jackass.

Many of the common voters were able to vote in a presidential election for the first time, thanks to Jackson's campaign. Mississippi gave voting rights to all white men regardless of their property values.

Only Virginia and the Carolinas are still dominated by the planter elite.

The property they owned was a popular vote.

The Working Men's parties faded quickly. 31p0 x 25p0 labor politicians were vulnerable to manipulation because of their inexperience. Major national parties, including the Jacksonian Democrats, chose many of their issues. The working class parties drew attention to their demands. They promoted free public education for all children, called for an end to imprisoning people for indebtedness, and supported a ten- hour workday to prevent employers from abusing workers.

The new Democratic party was able to build a national coalition of working class supporters because union members loved Andrew Jackson.

Jackson took every state west and south of Pennsylvania when the election returns came in.

The surge in voter turnout was equal to that of the 1824 election.

All white men in Mississippi were given voting rights regardless of their property values.

Only Virginia and the Carolinas are still dominated by the planter elite.

The property they owned was a popular vote.

The Working Men's parties faded quickly. 31p0 x 25p0 labor politicians were vulnerable to manipulation because of their inexperience. As Jackson prepared for his inauguration, the president-elect chose many of the issues of the major national parties. The working class parties were resentful of the way his opponents had besmirched his reputation. They promoted free public education for his wife Rachel, who had died in December of 1828, just a few days after all children, and called for an end to imprisoning people for indebtedness, and learning of the political attacks on her and her "tarnished" marriage. Jackson wanted to prevent employers from abusing workers.

A vengeant is building a national coalition of working class supporters.

He would take every state west and south of Pennsylvania.

He would have men vote in the 1824 election.

Many policies were pursued by the federal government after the War of 1812. McCul v.

Many Americans were more tied to their areas of the country. People in the Northeast, South, and Midwest disagreed about which economic policies best served their interests. The extension of slavery into the new territories became the main political concern as settlers streamed west, requiring both sides to compromise to avoid civil war.

James Monroe's term in office began with peace. The expansion of slavery in the South was encouraged by the rapid growth of the cotton culture. The southern economy was devastated by world cotton prices in 1819.

After the War of 1812, America's boundaries were extended and trade with Great Britain resumed. To the north, the U.S. established borders with Canada.

The Republicans are the only national political party.

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The Panic of 1837 was caused by Andrew Jackson's economic policies and hit the working poor the hardest. The cartoon depicts New York City during the seven- year depression, with a mob storming a bank, a widow begging on the street, and a barefoot sailor. The militiaman is a down- on- luck member of the Bowery Toughs gang. Jackson's hat, glasses, and pipe overlook the scene and the cartoonist blames him.

Andrew Jackson was a unique leader. Jackson was the emblem of a new democratic era.

Jackson was short and thin. He never hesitated to fight or get even if his sense of honor was challenged. Politics was personal for Jackson.

Simple pleasures were what Jackson believed in. He installed twenty spittoons in the White House. Jackson was an intimidating dating figure with his blue eyes, long nose, jutting chin, silver- gray hair, and intense, iron- willed personality. He was not in good health when he took the presidency.

Jackson was focused and sure of himself despite his physical challenges. He loved the rough and tumble combat of the new democratic political culture more than previous presidents. He boasted that he was born for a storm.

Many political leaders cringed at the thought of Jackson, who had run roughshod over international law in his war against the British, presiding over the nation.