Many European countries exported large parts of their population to the Americas in the 19th century.

In some European countries, demographic pressures were alleviated but not always. Immigration from non-western areas after 1945, for all the complex difficulties associated with it, presented less daunting challenges than internal movement of European peoples. France received a large number of non- European citizens by the end of the century, making it the most tolerant country in Europe. Accepting and integrating large numbers of non-whites and nonChristians presented challenges that were bound to have toxic repercussions. The Irish and Italians were the most racist of Europeans in the 19th century. The French have not achieved a satisfactory assimilation of their non European populations.

The record in most European countries by the second decade of the twenty-first century was not reassuring, despite the evidence that immigrants were often beneficial and that many did integrate successfully. In the United States, long accustomed to accepting immigrants and to praising them, resentment was rising against the largely non- European immigrants, especially the millions of illegal ones that were flooding the country from Latin America but also other parts of the world.

Environmental threats, demographic decline, and non-European immigration were worrisome twenty-first century challenges for Europe. By 2012 the threat to the environment appeared more ominous in China than it did in Europe. Most areas of the world faced grave environmental threats, including the United States, which has been a major contributor to most types of environmental pollution. The demographic issues outside Europe were not the same as those in Europe. China's "one-child" policy resulted in a generation with many more males than females, which seemed to have dire long-range implications. Immigration was a major global issue. Europe was worried about mass immigration more than most because so many non-Europeans wanted to enter. The countries of Africa, Latin America, and almost any nation with a predominantly Islamic population were not comparable to China or India.

European traditions of tolerance and the rule of law played an important role in the influx of immigrants to Europe. European xenophobia, however, was less violent and lawless than in other areas of the world.

The European Union faced what some considered Europe's most alarming economic situation since 1945, in the form of the so-called debt crisis, affecting mostly the seventeen nations that had accepted the euro. The issue of the lack of a European identity that was stronger than existing nationalist identities was reflected in that predicament. In 2012 the European Union recognized twenty-three official languages, but many were resistant to either giving the technocrats in Brussels more power or accepting Germany's dominant role in the Union.

If ever a united states of Europe like the United States of America is achieved, it will be far off.

It goes too far to conclude that European unification has failed.

Liberal democracy was the worst form of government according to Churchill. In comparison to other areas of the globe, much the same might be said of Europe.

Europeans have tried to come to grips with their history in both its successes and its tragedies.

As noted at the beginning of this chapter, historians tend to be cautious in evaluating the longrange meaning of current events, and it does seem that, the closer they get to the present, the more ephemeral are many of the works published on the European scene. The titles of some books that appeared a decade or so ago are more optimistic than the books that have appeared recently.

Proper names and terms can be found in this volume. No reader can be expected to have an adequate sense of how all of them are pronounced, since most of these languages have sounds that do not exist in English, and many give different values to letters of the alphabet than English does.

Most readers don't know how to pronounce some foreign terms, because they reside in a linguistic no-man's-land. The pronunciation guides here try to make it easy for English-speaking readers to understand. The International Phonetic alphabet's arcane symbols are not helpful for most.

Where native pronunciation is similar to intuitive English, pronunciation guides are not provided. When first names seem particularly odd or puzzling, guides are given.

When appropriate, the birth and death dates of major figures are included in parentheses after their names.

There are references to maps and figures in italics.

It was published by John Wiley & Sons.

The assassinations and attempted assassinations of Alexander II and Francois Babeuf.

Khrushchev's speech was about Leninist issues.

The role in the Great Depression was challenged by De Gaulle.

Document Outline

• A History of Modern Europe: From 1815 to the Present Copyright Contents Preface: The Dilemmas and Rewards of a Concise Historical Overview List of Maps List of Figures Acknowledgments Introduction: What Is Europe? "Christendom" and Europe Geographical Definitions Europe's Unusual Seas: The Mediterranean and Baltic Europe's Unusual Races European Languages Europe's Religious Mixes The Differing Rates of Growth in Europe's Regions Notes to the Reader A Few Words about the Further Reading Sections National and Thematic Overviews Biographies Historiography and Bibliography Further Reading (to the Introduction) Part I Romanticism and Revolt: The Seedtime of Modern Ideologies, 1815-40 1 The Legacy of the French Revolution France's Preeminence The Changes Made by the Revolution The Revolutionary Mystique The Opening Stages of the Revolution The Causes of the Revolution: Precedents The Ambiguous Ideal of Equality Civil Equality for Jews? The Many Meanings of Fraternity The Revolution: Progressive or Regressive? Further Reading 2 The Congress of Vienna and Post-Napoleonic Europe: 1815-30 A Uniquely European Meeting The Major Powers: Goals and Compromises Napoleon Returns: The Hundred Days The Issue of Poland Other Territorial Settlements Accomplishments of the Congress: Short-Term, Long-Term The Repressive Years in Britain Metternich's Repressions Further Reading 3 The Engines of Change Conceptualizing Historical Change The Industrial Revolution and Its Preconditions The British Model of Industrialization Industrialization in Other Countries Resistance to Industrialization Technological Innovation and Industrialization The Implications of Industrial Change Further Reading 4 The Seedtime of Ideology: A Century of "Questions" Europe's Major "Questions" and Its Belief in Progress The Elusive Genesis and Evolution of Europe's Isms Conservatism, Liberalism, Socialism Edmund Burke: The Conservative Tradition and Its Opponents Feminism and the Woman Question The Evolution of Liberal Theory and Practice: Radicalism and Utilitarianism Classical Liberalism Mill on Socialism and Feminism Fourier's Fantastic but "Scientific" Vision of Socialism The "Practical" Socialist, Robert Owen Saint-Simon, Prophet of Modernism The Communist Tradition Romanticism and Classicism Further Reading Part II From the 1820s to the Great Depression of the 1870s and 1880s 5 Liberal Struggles, Victories, Dilemmas, Defeats The Revolution of 1830 in France Unrest in the 1830s Agitation to Repeal the Corn Laws The Great Hunger in Ireland The Darker Vision of Thomas Malthus Again, Revolution in France Reform in Britain: The Chartist Movement Revolutions of 1848 and the End of Metternich's Europe The Republican Provisional Government and the "National Workshops" Rising Class Conflict and the "June Days" The National Question Outside France Growing Divisions among the Revolutionaries Further Reading 6 Nationalism and National Unification Problems of Definition Ideas of German Nationality People, Language, and State: Herder and Hegel Slavic Identities Southern Europe: Latin Identities New Power Relations in Europe: The Wars of Mid-century The Unification of Italy The Unification of Germany Further Reading 7 Mid-century Consolidation, Modernization: Austria, Russia, France The Habsburg Empire The Russian Empire France's Second Empire Further Reading 8 Optimism, Progress, Science: From The 1850s To 1871 The Franco-Prussian War and the Paris Commune The Classic Age of British Liberalism Britain's Social Peace, Political Stability, and Economic Productivity Liberalism, Population Growth, and Democracy The Irish Question Darwin and Darwinism Further Reading Part III From Depression to World War: The 1870s to 1914 9 The Depressed and Chastened 1870s and 1880s The Spread of Marxism: Controversies about the Meaning of Marxism The Development of Social Darwinism and Evolutionary Thinking Russian Revolutionary Movements in the 1870s and 1880s The Appearance of Modern Racial-Political Antisemitism Antisemitism in Germany The Weakness of Antisemitism in Italy and Britain Antisemitism in France: Renan and the Scandals of the 1880s Further Reading 10 Germany and Russia in the Belle Epoque: 1890-1914 A Rising Germany Liberalism Challenged, Mass Politics, and the Second Industrial Revolution The Influence of Friedrich Nietzsche New Aspects of the German Question The Evolution of German Social Democracy: The Revisionist Controversy Russia under Nicholas II The Appeals of Marxism in Russia and the Emergence of Leninism The Russo-Japanese War, 1904-5 Revolution and Reaction in Russia, 1905-14 Further Reading 11 France and Britain in the Belle Epoque: 1890-1914 France in Turmoil The Dreyfus Affair French Socialism Edwardian Britain The Boer War The Woman Question Further Reading 12 The Origins of World War I Growing International Anarchy, Hypernationalism, Polarization of Alliances An Inevitable War? The Role of Personality and Chance The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand From Euphoria to Stalemate Warfare Further Reading Part IV The European Civil War: 1914-43 13 World War I: 1914-18 Stalemate Warfare in the West and Expansion in the East 1916: The Battles at Verdun and the Somme 1917: A Turning Point Autumn 1917 to Autumn 1918: The Last Year of War and Germany's Collapse November 1918: The Balance Sheet of War Further Reading 14 Revolution in Russia: 1917-21 A Proletarian Revolution? The March (February) Revolution: Provisional Government and Soviets Lenin's Return: The Paradoxes of Bolshevik Theory and Practice The Mechanics of the Bolshevik Seizure of Power The Constituent Assembly Civil War in Russia: The Red Terror The Failure of Revolution in the West What "Really Happened" in Russia between November 1917 and March 1921? Further Reading 15 The Paris Peace Settlement The Settlements of 1815 and 1919 Compared; the Issue of German Guilt Popular Pressures, "New Diplomacy," Russia's Isolation Wilson's Role: The Fourteen Points The Successor States and the Issue of Self-Determination The Creation of New Nation-States: Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia Dilemmas and Contradictions of Ethnic-Linguistic States Minority Treaties League of Nations Mandates Further Reading 16 The Dilemmas of Liberal Democracy in the 1920s Containing Germany: The Weakness of the League of Nations, 1919-29 The Dilemmas of American Leadership: Isolationism Reactionary Trends and the Woman Question The Negative Impact of the Versailles Treaty: Undermining German Democracy The Evolution of Liberal Democracy in Germany Developments in the Third Republic The Brief Rule of the British Labour Party The Stock-Market Crash, November 1929: The Beginning of the Great Depression Further Reading 17 Stalinist Russia and International Communism Stalin and Stalinism The 1920s: Lingering Dilemmas and the Industrialization Debate Stalin's Victory in the Struggle for Power Stalin and the Jewish Question in the Bolshevik Party Collectivization and the Five-Year Plan The Blood Purges 1939: The Balance Sheet: Paradoxes and Imponderables Further Reading 18 The Rise of Fascism and Nazism: 1919-39 The Origins of Italian Fascism Mussolini's Assumption of Power The Evolving Definition of Fascism: Initial Relations with Nazism The Spread of Fascism Outside Italy, 1922-33 Nazism: The Basis of Its Appeal The Nature of Hitler's Antisemitism Hitler in Power A Moderate Solution to the Jewish Question? Nazi and Soviet Rule: Comparing Evils Further Reading 19 The Origins of World War II and the Holocaust: 1929-39 European Diplomacy, 1929-34 Hitler's Retreats, the Stresa Front The Great Turning Point, 1934-5: Comintern Policy and the Ethiopian War The Popular Front in France, 1935-9 The Spanish Civil War, 1936-9 The Era of Appeasement, 1936-8 Evaluating Appeasement Further Reading 20 World War II and the Holocaust: 1939-43 Appeasement from the East and the Outbreak of World War II The Opening Stages of World War II War in the West, 1940 The War against Judeo-Bolshevism The Turning of the Tide Victories at Stalingrad and the Kursk Salient Further Reading Part V Europe in Recovery and the Cold War: 1943-89 and Beyond 21 Victory, Peace, Punishment: 1943-6 The Problems and Paradoxes of Victory Planning for Victory Personal Diplomacy and Realpolitik Winning the War: Myths and Realities The Ambiguous Peace The Holocaust's Final Stages: Vengeance The Nuremberg Trials Dilemmas and Paradoxes of Punishment Further Reading 22 Europe's Nadir, the German Question, and the Origins of the Cold War: 1945-50 War-time Deaths, Military and Civilian The Unresolved German Question: Germany's Borders Denazification The Two Germanies, East and West Schumacher and Adenauer Social Democrats vs. Christian Democrats Postwar Austria The Origins and Nature of the Cold War Further Reading 23 The Mystique of Revolution: Ideologies and Realities, 1945 to the 1960s The Revolutionary Mystique in the Immediate Postwar Years Democratic Socialism in Western Europe: Great Britain Democratic Socialism in Western Europe: Scandinavia The Revolutionary Mystique, the Cult of Personality, and "Real" Socialism Titoism and the New Show Trials Stalin's Death and Khrushchev's "De-Stalinization" Revolts in Poland and Hungary, 1956 The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962 East Germany and the Berlin Wall Further Reading 24 The End of Imperialism, and European Recovery: 1948-68 European Exhaustion and the End of Empire India and the Middle East New Dimensions of the Jewish Question "French" Algeria The Vagaries of Historical Memory: The Role of the Cold War The Establishment of the Fourth Republic in France Restoring Liberal Democracy in Italy European Unification: The First Steps De Gaulle's Vision: The Fifth Republic Further Reading 25 Europe in a New Generation Communism with a Human Face: Czechoslovakia, 1968 Young Rebels in Western Europe France: The "Events of May" Feminism in the New Generation Further Reading 26 Detente, Ostpolitik, Glasnost: A New Europe Shifting International Relationships: Frictions and Contretemps in the Soviet Union and United States The Impact of the Oil Embargo of 1973: "Stagflation" The Restive Soviet Bloc in the 1970s and 1980s Poland and Solidarity West Germany's Ostpolitik: Management of Modern Capitalism Gorbachev and Glasnost, 1985-9 The Disintegration of Communist Rule From Mystique (1989-90) to Politique (1991-2012) From Soviet Union to Russian Federation The Unification of Germany The Breakup of Former Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia Western Europe: From Common Market to European Union Further Reading 27 Europe in Two Centuries: An Epilogue and General Assessment Europe's Evolving Identity European Liberties and Toleration The Irish Question The Woman Question The Social Question and the Role of the State The Eastern Question and the End of Empires The German Question Americanization, Globalization, and the European Model The Jewish Question The New Enemy: Islam Environmentalism under Capitalism and Communism The Demographic Question and European Xenophobia The Sovereign Debt Crisis: The Dilemmas of the European Union Further Reading Index