Section 15.12 Defects in Vision
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ability to catch small insects while reducing the likelihood of being noticed bylarger, possibly dangerous creatures passing through the neighborhood.
The human eye also possesses important processing mechanisms. It has been shown that movement of the image is necessary for human vision as well.
In the process of viewing an object, the eye executes small rapid movements,30 to 70 per second, which alter slightly the position of the image on the retina.
Under experimental conditions, it is possible to counteract the movement ofthe eye and stabilize the position of the retinal image. It has been found that,under these conditions, the image perceived by the person gradually fades.
15.12
Defects in Vision myopia (nearsightedness), hyperopia (farsightedness), and astigmatism. The first two of these defects are best explained by examining theimaging of parallel light by the eye.
The relaxed normal eye focuses parallel light onto the retina (Fig. 15.10).
In the myopic eye the lens system focuses the parallel light in front of theretina (Fig. 15.11a). This misfocusing is usually caused by an elongated eyeball or an excessive curvature of the cornea. In hyperopia the problem isreversed (see Fig. 15.12a). Parallel light is focused behind the retina. Theproblem here is caused by an eyeball that is shorter than normal or by theinadequate focusing power of the eye. The hyperopic eye can accommodateobjects at infinity, but its near point is farther away than is normal. Hyperopia
is, thus, similar to presbyopia. These two defects can be summarized as follows: The myopic eye converges light too much, and the hyperopic eye notenough.
Astigmatism is a defect caused by a nonspherical cornea. An oval-shaped cornea, for example, is more sharply curved along one plane than another;therefore, it cannot form simultaneously sharp images of two perpendicularlines. One of the lines is always out of focus, resulting in distorted vision.
FIGURE 15.10 The normal eye.





228
Chapter 15 Optics FIGURE 15.11 (a) Myopia. (b) Its correction.
FIGURE 15.12 (a) Hyperopia. (b) Its correction.
FIGURE 15.13 Cylindrical lens for astigmatism.
All three of these defects can be corrected by lenses placed in front of the eye. Myopia requires a diverging lens to compensate for the excess refractionin the eye. Hyperopia is corrected by a converging lens, which adds to thefocusing power of the eye. The uneven corneal curvature in astigmatism iscompensated for by a cylindrical lens (Fig. 15.13), which focuses light alongone axis but not along the other.
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15.13
Lens for Myopia far point of the eye. Light from objectsfarther away than this is focused in front of the retina (Fig. 15.11a). Here thepurpose of the corrective lens is to make parallel light appear to come fromthe far point of the eye (in this case, 2 m). With such a corrective lens, the eyeis able to form images of objects all the way to infinity.
The focal length of the lens is obtained by using Eq. C.6, which is 1 + 1 1
p
q
f
Here p is infinity, as this is the effective distance for sources of parallel light.
The desired location q for the virtual image is −200 cm. The focal length ofthe diverging lens (see Eq. C.4) is, therefore, 1 1 + 1 or f −200 cm −5 diopters
f
∞
−200
15.14 Lens for Presbyopia and Hyperopia
p
q
f
Here p is the object distance at 25 cm and q is −150 cm, which is the distanceof the virtual image at the near point. The focal length f for the converginglens is given by 1 1 − 1 or f 30 cm 33.3 diopters f
15.15
Extension of Vision

230
Chapter 15 Optics μm.
Over the past 300 years, two types of optical instruments have been devel oped to extend the range of vision: the telescope and the microscope. Thetelescope is designed for the observation of distant objects. The microscopeis used to observe small objects that cannot be seen clearly by the naked eye.
Both of these instruments are based on the magnifying properties of lenses.
A third more recent aid to vision is the fiberscope which utilizes total internalreflection to allow the visualization of objects normally hidden from view.
15.15.1 Telescope objective lens or objective, whichforms a real inverted image of the distant object. Because light from the distantobject is nearly parallel, the image is formed at the focal plane of the objective.
(The drawing shows the light rays from only a single point on the object.) Thesecond lens, called the eyepiece, magnifies the real image. The telescope isadjusted so that the real image formed by the objective falls just within thefocal plane of the eyepiece. The eye views the magnified virtual image formedby the eyepiece. The total magnification—the ratio of image to object size—isgiven by
Magnification − f1
(15.6)
f2
FIGURE 15.14 The telescope.


