Section 31.2 What life processes are carried out by the

Take a few moments to review the discussions before you start this chapter.

David Blaine has learned how to hold his breath under water through training. Adaptability has been gained by mammals living in aquatic environments.

If you immerse your face in cold water and your heart rate goes down, your blood vessels may contract and you may be able to release stored red blood cells. This response along with decreasing oxygen levels can lead to pain and even tissue damage.

They have more red blood cells per body weight than we do, they have more oxygen-storing proteins in their muscles, and they have an effective diving response.

Animals have a variety of strategies for delivering oxygen and removing carbon dioxide.

The path of oxygen from the human nose to the alveoli of the lungs can be traced.

Oxygen is transported from the lungs to the tissues by blood.

Carbon dioxide is transported to the lungs by the blood.

The physical process of diffusion is what takes place in gas exchange. The gas-exchange region must be moist, thin, and large in relation to the size of the body for external respiration to be effective.

Some animals are small and shaped in a way that allows the gas-exchange surface to be the surface of the animal. The gills and lungs in aquatic animals are specialized for external respiration. Delivery of oxygen to the cells is promoted when the blood contains a respiratory pigment, such as hemoglobin.

Oxygen enters the mitochondria, where cellular respiration takes place, regardless of the way in which gases are delivered to the cells.

The cells of these animals may lack the power of the mitochondria, but they still have structures similar to the ones used by monastries to perform cellular respiration in the absence of oxygen. If internal respiration does not happen, life ceases for most animals.

It's more difficult for animals to get oxygen from water than from air.

Only a small amount of oxygen is present in the same volume of air as water. Water is denser than air. Terrestrial animals use less energy carrying out gas exchange than aquatic animals. Terrestrial mammals only use 1-2% of their energy output for that purpose, while fish use 25% of their energy output to respire.

In comparison to their size, hydrians and planarians have a large surface area. It is possible for most of their cells to exchange gases. In hydras, the outer layer of cells is in contact with the outside environment, and the inner layer can exchange gases with the water.

The hydra uses its body surface for gas exchange. The body surface is large compared to the animal.

The earthworm uses its body surface for respiration because the capillaries come close to the surface. An earthworm keeps its body moist by secreting mucus and releasing fluids. The worm is adapted to stay in damp soil during the day when the air is dry.

The gills that extract oxygen from a watery environment are found in aquatic animals. The organisms use different mechanisms to pump water across the gills.

The fish have gills. There is a tracheal system that delivers oxygen to the insect's cells. Terrestrial animals have large lungs with a large total external respiration surface.

The tadpoles of the frog have lungs that are saclike and live in the water. Most salamanders rely on the skin for hydration and respire to some extent through it.

The lungs of birds and mammals are divided into small passageways and spaces. Human lungs have a surface area of about 70 square meters, which is 50 times the surface area of the skin. Air has a drying effect on respiratory surfaces compared to water. When the air has a relative humidity of less than 50%, a human loses 350 liters of water per day. To keep the lungs from drying out, air is moistened as it moves through the passageways leading to the lungs.

Animals with gills use a variety of ways to breathe. Water passes through the gills of clams and squids when it is drawn into the mantle cavity. The gills are located in the thoracic chambers in crustaceans. The water moves because of the action of specialized appendages near the mouth. The operculum is closed when the mouth is open. After the mouth closes and the opercula opens, the pharynx draws water from the gill arches.

The gills of fishes are extensions of the pharynx. The gills on the outside of the gill arches are folded into a plate.

Half of the oxygen in the water is captured at an equilibrium point.

As blood gains oxygen, it always encounters water with a higher oxygen content. A countercurrent mechanism prevents an equilibrium point from being reached.

The operculum protects the delicate gills.

There are two rows of gill filaments in the gill layer. The scanning electron micrograph shows a series of capillary-laden lamellae. The blood in the capillaries moves in a different direction than the water. The water that flows between the lamellae and the capillaries is exchanged for gases. Countercurrent flow causes blood to take up most of the oxygen in the water.

The internal organs of arthropods are covered in hemolymph, a mixture of blood and lymph, because the coelom is reduced.

Circulation in arthropods is inefficient because hemolymph flows freely through the hemocoel. The flight muscles of insects need a steady supply of oxygen.

Insects use a respiratory system that takes oxygen directly to the cells to overcome the inefficiency of their blood flow.

The air tubes are only about 0.1 millimeter in diameter.

Almost every cell is close to one of the fine tracheoles. The tricyleoles make sure that they end close to the mitochondria. O2 can flow directly from a tracheole to the mitochondria.

The air tubes in the insect's body carry oxygen to the cells. The spiracles are where air enters the tracheae.

The walls of the trachea are stiffened with bands of chitin. The closing device on the spiracle may be the reason insects have no trouble in dry climates. Scientists have found that the tracheae can expand and contract to draw air into and out of the system. Many larger insects have air sacs, which are thin and flexible and located near major muscles, to improve the efficiency of the tracheal system. Contraction of these muscles causes the air sacs to empty, and relaxation causes the air sacs to expand. The way that human lungs expand is similar to this method.

The insects lack the efficient circulatory system of birds and mammals, which is able to pump oxygenrich blood through arteries to all the cells of the body. Despite the attempts of sciencefiction movies to make us think otherwise, insects have remained relatively small.

A tracheal system is an adaptation to breathing air, yet some insect stages live in the water. The tracheae don't receive air by way of spiracles. The tracheae receives oxygen from the body wall. The tracheae is a thin extension of the body wall for Mayfly and stonefly nymphs. This adaptation dramatizes the fact that tracheae function the same as blood vessels in the body.

Some aquatic insects have a different strategy. Water beetles breathe through spiracles. Because they live in water, they capture a bubble of air from the surface and carry it with them, exchanging the oxygen inside for CO2.

The human respiratory system includes all of the structures that conduct air in a continuous pathway to and from the lungs.

As air moves through the nose, the pharynx, trachea, and bronchi to the lungs, it is cleansed so that it is free of debris, warmed, and humidified. The air is saturated with water when it reaches the lungs.

The respiratory tract extends from the nose to the lungs. The lining of the trachea has goblet cells. The mucus traps the particles, and the cilia help move the mucus toward the throat, where it can be swallowed or expectorated. There is a capillary network that surrounds the alveoli. In the Page 660 trachea and the bronchi, cilia beat upward, carrying mucus, dust, and occasionally small bits of food that "went down the wrong way" back into the throat, where theAccumulation may be swallowed or expectorated.

When gas exchange is required, it permits greater intake of air.

These flexible and pliable bands vibrate against each other, producing sound when air is expelled past them through the glottis.

As the bronchial tubes divide and subdivide, the walls of the two bronchi become thinner and there are no rings of cartilage.

The air in the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries exchange gasses.

The mechanisms used by mammals and birds to inflate their lungs are compared.

The lungs are connected to the rest of the body. CO2 leaves the blood into the lungs while Oxygen moves into the blood.

Terrestrial animals move air into and out of their lungs. Amphibians use positive pressure to get air into their lungs. The floor of the mouth rises when the mouth and nostrils are closed. Animals use positive and negative pressure to move air into and out of their lungs.

Boyle's Law states that at a constant temperature the pressure of a given quantity of gas is proportional to its volume. When the sides of the container move outward, air pressure decreases inside the container and air moves in, just as air automatically enters the lungs when the rib cage moves up and out. Air flows out of the container if the sides are pressed inward. When the rib cage moves down, air exits the lungs.

If we want, forced expiration can happen.

When the sides of a container move outward, the volume of the container increases and the air pressure decreases. Similar to moving the sides of the container inward, increased air pressure in the lungs causes air to flow out during exhalation.

mammals have a rib cage and a diaphragm, but reptile have jointed ribs that can be raised to expand the lungs.

In mammals and reptiles, inspiration is the active phase of breathing.

Air is drawn into the lungs during inspiration. The lung positions and pressures are back to where they were before.

The air is forced out.

In mammals, the rib cage moves down and the diaphragm relaxes. The passive phase of breathing in mammals and reptiles is called expiration. Air flows out of the lungs during expiration due to increased pressure.

The lungs of salamanders, lizards, and mammals are not completely emptied during each breathing cycle. The air entering mixes with used air in the lungs. This decreases gas-exchange efficiency and helps conserve water. Incoming air goes past the lungs to a set of air sacs.

Fresh air doesn't mix with used air in the lungs of birds, which improves gas-exchange efficiency.

Birds have air sacs in their lungs. Birds have a oneway mechanism of ventilating their lungs.

Adults have a breathing rate of 12 to 20 per minute.

The center stops sending signals to the rib cage.

The breathing rate can be changed by stimulation of the intercostal muscles.

The respiratory center's activity can be influenced by both nervous and chemical inputs. The nerve impulses that travel from the inflated lungs to the respiratory center are initiated by stretch receptors in the alveolar walls. The respiratory center sends nerve impulses.

The respiratory center is sensitive to the levels of H+). When carbon dioxide enters the blood, it reacts with water. The breathing rate is regulated by CO2 in this way. The respiratory center increases the rate and depth of breathing when the pH and hydrogen ion levels go down.

Respiration includes the exchange of gases in our lungs, as well as the exchange of gases in the tissues. The movement of gases into and out of blood vessels in the lungs and tissues is governed by the principles of diffusion. Oxygen will diffuse from the higher to the lower pressure if the partial pressure is different. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the higher to the lower partial pressure.

The alveoli of the lungs have a higher Page 664 PO2 and a lower PCO2 than the blood in pulmonary capillaries, and this accounts for the exchange of gases in the lungs. When blood reaches the tissues, cellular respiration in cells causes the interstitial fluid to have a lower PO2 and a higher PCO2 than the blood in the systemic capillaries, and this accounts for the exchange of gases in the tissues.

The transport of O2 and CO2 is different in external respiration than it is in internal inspiration.

As blood enters the lungs, a small amount of CO2 is carried by hemoglobin with the formula HbCO2. HbH+ is carried by some hemoglobin.

2 in the pulmonary capillaries are carried as HCO3 in the blood.

Pushing this equation to the far right by breathing fast can cause you to stop breathing for a while, and pushing it to the left by not breathing is even more temporary, because breathing will soon resume due to the rise in H+.

The normal PO2 in the lungs is saturated with hemoglobin. Each red blood cell is capable of carrying at least 1 billion molecules of oxygen, and each hemoglobin molecule contains four polypeptide chains.

The iron atom can bind to O2.

Carbon monoxide is an air pollutant that comes from incomplete combustion of natural gas, gasoline, kerosene, and wood and charcoal. People can be unaware that they are breathing in CO. When CO is in the bloodstream, it combines with the iron of hemoglobin 200 times more tightly than oxygen, and the result is death. The reason that homes have CO detectors is because of this.

Blood entering the capillaries is a bright red color.

Cells continuously use up oxygen in their respirations, which leads to the lower PO2.

Carbon dioxide enters the blood from the tissues because the PCO2 of the fluid is higher than the blood. Carbon dioxide is collected in fluid.

This reaction is sped up by carbonic anhydrase.

The release of H+ from this reaction could change the pH of the blood, which is highly undesirable, because cells need a normal pH in order to remain healthy. The H+ is absorbed by the globin portions. The reduced hemoglobin formula is HbH+. The normal pH of the blood is maintained by HbH+. The blood that leaves the capillaries is a dark maroon color.

If the respiratory disorders are mainly caused by allergies, infections, a genetic defect, or toxin exposure, then they should be classified.

The human respiratory tract is constantly exposed to environmental air, which may contain infectious agents, allergens, tobacco smoke, or other toxins. The respiratory tract is susceptible to a number of diseases.

The upper respiratory tract includes the nose, mouth, and throat. Because the upper part of the respiratory tract filters out many pathogens and other materials that may be present in the air, it is often affected by a variety of infections.

Most "colds" are relatively mild viral infections of the upper respiratory tract characterized by sneezing, rhinitis, and perhaps a mild fever.

Vaccines are difficult to develop since we don't have immunity to the next strain of the viruses that cause the cold. penicillin is useless in treating colds.

The tonsillar area has symptoms such as sore throat, high fever, and white patches. Adults and children both experience about half as many sore throats as do each other. Some strep infections can lead to more serious conditions, such as scarlet fever, if they are not treated.

The white blood cells are fighting the infection and there are patches of white blood cells.

The diseases and disorders shown here are caused by exposure to infectious pathogens and polluted air.

One of the most obvious and life-threatening disorders that can affect the trachea is choking. The best way for a person without medical training to help someone who is choking is to grab the person around the waist from behind and use their hands to push the airway open. Trained medical personnel can quickly insert a breathing tube if this fails.

Allergic reactions and damage from environmental toxins are some of the causes of acute bronchitis. 5% of the U.S. is estimated to be.

It can be treated with antibiotics, or it can progress to more serious conditions.

The bronchi undergoes changes over time, including the loss of cilia. Infections are more likely to occur under these conditions. Smoking and exposure to airborne toxins are the most common causes of chronic bronchitis.

Dust, cigarette smoke, and animal dander are some of the irritants that the airways are sensitive to. Cold air or exercise can cause irritation.

A narrowing of the diameter of the airways is caused by inflammation in the airways and the contraction of smooth muscle lining their walls. The incidence of asthma in American children has been increasing since the early 1980s according to estimates. A more sedentary lifestyle, exposure to indoor toxins, and less frequent exposure to beneficial microbes are possible explanations. It is possible to have asthma.

Inhalers can help dilate the bronchi and prevent inflammation.

Hundreds of millions of people worldwide are affected by various diseases of the lung, which cause about 400,000 deaths per year in the United States. Treatments for lung disease include antibiotics, supplemental oxygen, and anti-Inflammatory drugs. There aren't enough donor lungs to meet the need for a lung transplant for patients with serious lung conditions who have exhausted all other treatment options. Recent advances in artificial lung technology are described in the Nature of Science feature.

People with a suppressed immune system, as well as the very young, the very old, and people with severalbacteria can cause pneumonia.

The kidneys are relatively easy to transplant from one well-matched individual to another with a high rate of success. Lungs are more difficult to transplant, with a 5-year survival rate of over 50%.

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation is a type of artificial lung that is frequently used in premature infants. The baby's blood is pumped from the body to an external device. The function of a natural lung is mimicked by the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen. The device allows the infant's cardiovascular system time to respond to medical treatment.

The right ventricle is where the BioLung is attached.

Blood leaving the ventricle passes over microfibers that exchange carbon dioxide and oxygen.

The lungs are bypassed by the return of the oxygenated blood to the left atrium. The BioLung is a small device that is powered by the heartbeat.

Until a lung transplant is available, artificial lungs can be used.

Tuberculosis was a major killer in the United States before the middle of the twentieth century. The United States had less than 10,000 cases in 2013), the lowest number ever recorded, but infections remain high in certain ethnic groups and among foreign-born persons.

The cells build a protective capsule around the organisms, isolating them from the rest of the body.

A tubercle is a tiny capsule. The organisms can escape and spread if the resistance of the body is high.

A person who has never been exposed to the bacterium shows no reaction, but one who has been exposed to the bacterium develops an inflammation that peaks in about 48 hours.

emphysema contributes to COPD in smokers. A ballooning of the chest is caused by air trapped in the lungs.

The driving force behind expiration is reduced because the elastic recoil of the lungs is reduced. The patient may have a cough. Because the surface area for gas exchange is reduced, less oxygen reaches the heart and brain, leaving the person feeling depressed. Exercise, drug therapy, and supplemental oxygen, along with giving up smoking, may relieve the symptoms and slow the progression of emphysema and COPD.

The health risks of smoking have been clear for at least 50 years. 42 million Americans are smokers. Nicotine's addictive power is strong when a person starts smoking. Some want to be accepted by friends, others want to rebel against authority. Some smokers think the habit helps them control their weight, while others just enjoy the nicotine buzz.

The growing popularity of electronic cigarettes is a result of people looking for alternatives to smoking. E-cigarettes are often designed to look like real cigarettes, but instead of tobacco, they contain a "e-liquid" that consists mainly of nicotine and propylene glycol.

The tip of a lit cigarette has a light that glows. There is no smell of tobacco.

The vapor from an e cigarette is safer than cigarette smoke according to the manufacturers. Many health experts are concerned that the effects of inhaling pure nicotine have not yet been studied. The nicotine content of e-liquids can be quite variable, and a variety of contaminants have been detected.

Some nicotine solutions contain flavors such as chocolate and cotton candy, which could appeal to the very young, even though companies claim they aren't marketing to children.

Vaping is unlikely to be worse than smoking because of all the health risks. Until issues with ecigarettes can be fixed, the best health advice would be to avoid vaping as well.

Nicotine is different from most drugs in that it is mainly a stimulant at low levels, but more so at high levels.

Someone will give you an e-cigarette at a party if you've never smoked before.

Smoking is a major cause of emphysema. A person who died from emphysema had a shrunken and blackened lung. A mass of soft tissue is found in the lung of a person who died from lung cancer.

The lungs can't inflate properly and are prone to deflation. Mesothelioma is a type of cancer that is associated with breathing asbestos. In the United States, the use of Asbestos as a fireproofing and insulation agent has been limited since the 1970s; however, many thousands of lawsuits are filed each year by patients suffering from diseases caused by the substance.

Lung cancer kills more people than any other cancer combined. Lung cancer is more common in men than in women, but rates in women have increased in recent years due to an increasing number of women who smoke. Lung cancer rates peak at around 70 years old when they start to rise.

If the cancer spreads to other parts of the body, many other symptoms can occur.

Lung cancer can be treated with a combination of therapies. Lung cancer survival rates range from 15% in the United States to 8% in less developed countries. The American Cancer Society blames smoking for most of the deaths. Smoking is associated with bronchitis, emphysema, heart disease, and other types of cancer.

Nicotine in cigarette smoke is addictive, so it is better to start smoking than to quit later.

A child has to inherit two copies of the faulty genes to have the disease. It is the most common genetic disease in the white population.

There is a gene that is malfunctioning that is needed for the proper transport of chloride in the lung.

In order to clear mucus from the airway, part of the treatment is to slap the patient on the back and give them mucusthinning drugs. Because the lungs can be severely affected, the median survival age for people with the disease is only 30 years.

There are two disorders of the lower respiratory tract that cause narrowing of the airways and two that restrict the lungs' ability to expand.

There are six illnesses associated with smoking cigarettes.

Some aquatic animals, such as hydras, use their entire body surface for gas exchange. Most animals have a gas-exchange area. The blood in the capillaries travels in the opposite direction of the water.

Air enters the tracheae through openings called spiracles. Gas exchange takes place at the cells themselves as the air moves to smaller tracheoles. Lungs are found inside the body. Some animals use positive pressure, but most use negative pressure to get air into the lungs. Air is exhaled when the breathing muscles relax.

Birds have air sacs in their lungs. When a bird exhales, the air moves through the lungs to the anterior air sacs. The one-way flow of air through the lungs allows for more fresh air to be present in the lungs with each breath, and this leads to greater use of oxygen from one breath of air. Animals have two-way or tidal air flow in and out of their lungs, and as a result some mixing is always occurring between fresh air and previously inhaled air.

The glottis are covered by the epiglottis when food is being swallowed.

The rib cage goes down and in.

Excess hydrogen ion are transported. Red blood cells have anhydrases that speed up the formation of the bicarbonate ion.

The respiratory tract is susceptible to a wide variety of infections.

Pick the best answer for the question.

There is a diagram depicting respiration.

The flow of air in birds is the same as it is in humans.

There would be no need to swallow if the respiratory and digestive tracts were separated.

Carbon dioxide and water combine to make carbonic acid.

Carbonic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide and water in tissue capillaries.

Match each description with a structure in the key.

The rib cage is moving.

The respiratory control center in humans is stimulated by carbon dioxide.

The pressure inside the lungs is greater than the atmospheric pressure.

Carbon dioxide is carried in the blood.

The blood is where the chemical reaction that converts carbon dioxide to a bicarbonate ion takes place.

It's hard to develop immunity to the common cold.

When someone is choking on food, the first thing to do is to have a tracheostomy.

Asthma affects the upper respiratory tract.

There is a disease called Pulmonary Tuberculosis.

Birds and mammals have different respiratory systems.

Birds' lungs are relatively rigid and do not expand as much as mammals. Most birds have thin-walled air sacs that cover most of the body.

Children may also suffer from sleep disorders.

Difficult focusing and breathing through the mouth are some of the symptoms experienced during the day.

Children with the disease often have adenoids. The tonsils and adenoids can be removed to alleviate the problem. CPAP treatment might be necessary if the OSA continues after surgery.

Less O2 is being delivered to tissues because carbon monoxide is 200 times stronger than oxygen.

Sometimes it is necessary to install a permanent tracheostomy in smokers who develop laryngeal cancer.