chapter 13

Not only the traditional power structure, but also much of thought, literature, and art, as well as social and economic structures that were older than civilization itself, were changed in a hundred years.

The Industrial Revolution was the greatest shift in civilization during the 19th century.

The steam engine's use as a source of reliable power for machines to mass-produce cotton textiles began the revolution in Britain.
The partnership of machines to produce and use power on an unprecedented scale spread from Britain to many other Western and non-Western countries in the 19th century.
The rise and fall of entire industries, as well as fast- moving technical advances, became a permanent feature of Western civilization.

The change in human ways of life was the greatest since the Agricultural Revolution.

Giant capitalist corporations were formed to finance and manage new industries.
The elite was made up of captains of industry, stock exchange tycoons, and government bureaucrats.
The sons and daughters of peasants crowded from the countryside into the cities to bring in the workers needed for the new industries.
There were new conflicts between management and labor over the distribution of wealth.

Science was one of the main influences on the way of life of Western civilization in the 19th century.

The progress of scientific discovery has been gradual since the 17th century.

Social scientists began to apply measurement, observation, and experiment more or less systematically to society, culture, and human nature after being impressed by these successes.

The origin and development of living beings was removed from the natural world because of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution.

There was a renewed and bitter ideological conflict over the relationship between science and religion.
Darwin's idea of the struggle for existence became a source of inspiration for many secular ideologies, which saw human society as an arena of combat, and wanted to feel that the victory of their side was a scientific certainty.

The changes of the 19th century had an effect on literature and the arts.

The pull of the medieval, classical, and Christian past began to weaken.
Writers and artists found their themes in the life and objects of their own times--weary passengers in an overcrowded railroad car, for example, or a middle-class woman awakening to the meaninglessness of her life of pleasing her husband--rather than in previous eras.
New and contrasting styles evolved to depict such themes.
The Realists treated their subjects in full and accurate detail.
The Impressionists stripped detail to the bare minimum and carefully avoided social comment, so as to leave the most evocative "impression" of the scenes they portrayed.

The Realists and Impressionists were controversial because they rejected so much that it seemed like an essential part of the beauty and nobility of art.

As the West approached the great cultural divide that marked the beginning of the twentieth century, a civilization that was in any case transforming itself amid dispute and conflict became normal in the arts.

The Industrial Revolution was not planned.

It's remarkable that it ever happened, for it's not something that can be done easily or naturally.
Many of the developments that had transformed Europe and the rest of the world from the late Middle Ages onward paved the way for the Industrial Revolution.
The rise of capitalism created a class of merchants and manufacturers who were willing to take risks, as well as new forms of business organization that could be adapted to the needs of large industrial enterprises.
In the technical field, waterwheels used stronger sources of power than human or animal muscles, printing had set a precedent for complex mass production operations, and clocks provided an example of accurately functioning automatic machines.
The expectation was that scientific discovery would result in practical benefits.
Much of the world's trade was brought to the countries of western Europe by the growth of colonial empires, giving them wealth to invest in new technology and worldwide markets for their products.

By the 18th century, all of these developments had gone furthest in Britain.

The pattern of change spread to Europe, the Americas, and the Far East after the Industrial Revolution began.

The practice of land enclosure, which had been going on since the end of the Middle Ages, was speeding up in the course of the eighteenth century as English landlords increased their holdings and revenues.

The lord's tenants had access to the common lands of pasture, meadow, and wood lot under the old manorial regime.
The lands were gradually removed from common use and rented to individuals to farm.

The "open fields" of cultivated strips were switched into single plots and fenced in for individual use.

In the process of redistribution, landlords usually gained additional land, while tenants found that they could no longer make a living.

Large tracts of land were put under more efficient management because of the redistribution.

The landlords who were more ambitious were willing to experiment with improved methods.
They tried a number of new farming methods, including planting soil-renewing crops, and developing scientific breeding of livestock.
The result was an increase in output.
A pool of displaced farm workers were created by the revolution in agriculture.
Some hired themselves out to successful farm operators, while others turned to spinning or weaving.

They were prepared to go wherever they could make more money.

Cotton textiles, a product of India that was popular in many markets because it was comfortable, decorative, and cheaper than similar cloths such as fine linen or silk, was one of the goods that British merchants traded across the world.

If cotton cloth could be manufactured in Britain, the profits would be greater.
Cotton textiles were made by the domestic system but they were strong enough to be spun and woven by machines.

The first breakthrough was a multi-spindled spinning wheel.

Richard Arkwright's water-powered spinning "frame" came soon after.
The development of powered weaving looms was followed by advances in spinning.
These inventions were originally designed for use in the cotton industry and were adapted to woolen production as well.

Next to the building of factories was the logic of events.

The domestic system includes spinning and weaving.
The impact of the mac hine machines was not well suited to household use.
They had to be operated around the clock because they were a substantial capital investment.
They needed a source of power which was first supplied by the traditional waterwheels.
Power machines were set up in special establishments for a number of reasons.
Hundreds of workers were employed by Arkwright after he launched the first spinning mill.

His example was followed by other entrepreneurs.

The development of steam engines that could be built to be more powerful than waterwheels was the greatest boost to the building of factories.

The steam engine was developed in response to a problem in coal mining, where the tunnels were being dug too deep for the water to be drained from them by animal-powered pumps.
Newcomen was able to build a machine that would do the job because he knew about the 17th century discoveries about the behavior of water.
The steam engine was the first modern technical device to owe its existence to science.

James Watt and other practical inventors made improvements to Newcomen's machine, increasing its power and turning a wheel.

The steam engine became the main source of power in the factories and was adapted to both water and land transportation.
Manchester, the headquarters of the industrialized cotton industry, andLiverpool, the seaport through which Manchester imported raw cotton from the United States and exported finished textiles to customers in every continent, were linked five years later.
Within twenty years, steam trains were running all over Britain.
Britain provided the pattern for future industrialization around the world, with its cities linked by steam transportation, its coal mines deep beneath the earth, and its mechanized cotton industry.

Britain's industrial productivity and technical progress were unique at the middle of the 19th century, but they did not last.

The Industrial Revolution spread to other countries in the second half of the 19th century.

The features that enabled Britain to pioneer the Industrial Revolution were present in many countries in these regions.

They also had resources of coal and iron.
Middle-class businessmen were eager to build factories and landless country-dwellers were eager to earn money.
Landowning nobles wanted to farm their land more efficiently and make more money from the coal and iron Ore beneath it.
The first steam-powered railroad engraving shows a combination of engineering advances.
The steam engine has become compact and powerful enough to move both itself and a whole wagon train, thanks to iron rails that guide the wagons with minimal friction, and by bridges and embankments that keep the track level.
The railroad's main revenue-earning traffic is sitting on piles of coal from local mines.
Mass transportation has arrived to keep fuel moving in Britain.

Other countries joined in the push for technical invention in the second half of the 19th century.

By the end of the century, Britain was no longer the most advanced or productive country in the world.

In Europe, that position was taken by Germany, while other countries such as France, Belgium, Italy, and Austria-Hungary were also important industrial producers.
The ancient empire of Japan, responding to the threat of U.S. and European control, was on the way to becoming a modern industrial country.
The United States was the most advanced and productive of all the industrial countries because of its vast natural resources, its fast-growing population, and its technical know-how.

Industrialization spread from country to country.

More and more traditional products were manufactured by the new methods, and more and more new products and manufacturing processes were invented.

Industrial firms sought to exploit the connection between pure and applied science.
Practical engineers and backyard tinkerers could still make significant discoveries, but more and more inventors were scientists.
Industrial companies and national governments began to invest large sums in research and development as invention became an organized activity.
The surge of technological progress has continued down to the present day because of the seemingly unlimited progress of pure science.

The new age of a permanent Industrial Revolution linked to science began in the middle of the 19th century.

Improved understanding of the chemistry of metallic ores enabled iron to be quickly and cheaply transformed into a stronger form of the metal, steel.
Steel replaced iron for rails, bridges, shipbuilding, and other types of construction where superior strength was required by the end of the century.
Inventions in the field of power production and distribution were the result of advances in the physics of heat, gas, electricity, and magnetism.
A new and powerful form of steam engine, the turbine, was coupled with generators that turned steam power into electrical energy so as to make electric light and power.

The internal combustion engine joined steam and electrical power at the end of the 19th century.

The new type of engine brought about more revolutions in transportation because it was fueled by previously undiscovered petroleum resources.
It made possible the development of both automobiles and aircraft.
Chemists were able to produce a variety of textiles and plastics from the vast amount of petroleum available.
The transmission and processing of information has been transformed by the creation of electronic devices by other twentieth century scientists.

The inventions of the last century and a half have amounted to a revolution.

Steel, oil, plastics, electronics, automobiles, and aircraft are just some of the industries that have sprung from nothing.
Each new industry develops its giant corporations, massive production plants, and its labor force of hundreds of thousands after twenty or thirty years after the initial invention.

The Industrial Revolution has not been painless.

It has led to huge changes in the way businesses are organized and run and in the patterns of the work and life of ordinary people.
It has given rise to radical ideologies that have promised relief from capitalism and industrialization but in practice have brought their own forms of mass suffering.
The balance of power in the world has been altered by it, giving dominance to the advanced and productive nations, subjecting nonindustrial ones to imperialistic control, and providing the weapons to fight wars more terrible than any in history.

The impact of the machine is the focus of much of this and the following chapters.

Entrepreneurs had to raise capital from other sources as their operations grew.

The pooling of money from hundreds of thousands of individuals was required for large undertakings.

Financial protection is a distinctive feature of a corporation or limited company.

The stock owners of joint-stock companies were responsible for the debts of the enterprise.
The corporation is a clever legal invention that was created by law.
It is allowed to hold property, borrow money, and be sued without the involvement of the stockholders.
The stockholders would lose the value of their stock if the assets of the corporate person were lost.

The idea of limited liability is important since it allows a business to invest money in its stock without the risk of losing other property.

They delegate direction of the firm's operations to a board of directors who are usually elected by stockholders.
The executive officers of the firm are chosen by the board.
The directors and executives usually produce profits for the stockholders.

The modern large corporation's development was a direct response to the massive use of machines.

It is worth examining how these enterprises function because they affect the lives of people everywhere.

Multinational corporations conduct operations around the globe.
It is owned by thousands of stockholders who want to receive regular dividends or gain from an increase in the value of their stock.
It employs thousands or hundreds of thousands of people, provides millions of dollars in commodities, and pays taxes to national, state, and local governments.
The corporation's assets may run into billions of dollars, and its gross income may exceed the revenue of many states and nations.
The economic empire is controlled by a small group of corporate managers.
Their decisions, made within the limits of law, finance, and consumer acceptance, determine the flow of investment, research, and development and influence the tastes and habits of the public.

They tried to eliminate competition in world markets through private agreements and extended their investments abroad to control the rate of economic growth.

Money and business sought the best rates of return and with an international elite of owners, managers, bankers, and promoter, industrial capitalism became a global force.
In shaping Europe and the world in the 19th and 20th centuries, the impact of liberalism and nationalism was a major factor.

The promise of extra ordinary profits drew risk capital to "backward" countries.

There was cheap labor, a high demand for capital, and rich resources waiting to be exploited.
The creation of an interdependent global economy was aided by overseas investments.
European capital built railways in Africa that brought out raw materials to be manufactured in Europe and sold in markets around the world.

The industrialists of Great Britain did well.

British private investments overseas amounted to $18 billion by 1914.
French capitalists had $7 billion.
The two nations' comparative penetration and influence in the "backward" continents are shown in the figures.

As early as 1900, some thoughtful observers began to ask if the expansion of economic power could go on without seriously disturbing political relations within and among nations.

The corporate leaders were aware that their wealth was guiding politics at home and abroad.
They believed that their political influence was essential to the development of the world's resources.
They believed that they could serve humanity best by being unrestricted in their pursuit of profit.

Mercantilism held that economic activities should be used to strengthen the state and that the state should guide industry and commerce.

Adam Smith was the most effective critic of mercantilism.
His ideas are based on Hobbes's view of society.
He argued that there is a "natural" economy geared to human selfishness.

Smith's writing reflected the general optimism of the Enlightenment, but later theorists presented a darker outlook as far as the working class was concerned.

David Ricardo was a financier who made his fortune in England during the Napoleonic Wars.
In a free market economy with a plentiful supply of labor, wages need to be close to the bare minimum for the workers.
More than that would allow more of the workers' children to survive, and this would increase the supply, which in turn would lower the "natural" price.
If wages fell so low that some workers died off, the supply of labor would decrease, which would raise wages back to the poverty level.

The teachings of "free market" economists gave a feeling of hopelessness to wage earners.

The captains of trade and industry were not upset by the economics.
It gave them compelling justifications for keeping wages down, for seeking profit when and where they could, and for working toward the elimination of government interference.
They were successful in striking down controls that they didn't like and in promoting government action that favored their interests.
The latter practice became more common as economic and political realities moved further away from the models of Adam Smith.
His doctrine remained as a kind of mythology to be called up or ignored according to the interests of particular industries.

Readers familiar with the third law of motion would have expected that bigness in business would lead to being an opposing force.

Big Business was being confronted by Big Labor and Big Government by the turn of the twentieth century.
Independent actions were more limited by huge, "autonomous" organizations.

In the long run, industrialization raised standards of living and lightened the burden of manual labor.

The traditional family unit was weakened by the transfer of production to factories from family farms and workshops.
Work became associated with class.
The early factories had dangerous and oppressive working conditions, hours were long, and wages were low.
The factory owners reinvested profits back into their machines.
The capital was drawn from the unhappy laborers who only had one choice: work or starve.
Even that choice was often denied them.
The system of capitalism in the 19th century was unstable.
Good times were followed by bad times.
Wage earners were the hardest hit when the factories laid off workers.

They were bound to suffer for as long as the system lasted.

The early factories' conditions gave rise to bitter discontent.

The domestic system of production had worse conditions.
The factory system made workers aware of their common plight and gave them a sense of what their united power might be.
The worker was at the mercy of a large employer.
An employer could run a factory without the help of a single wage-hand if there was a surplus of hungry workers.
Should they lose their jobs, wage-hands often had no place to turn.
Wages and hours were set by the employer, and the worker could either take them or leave them, in the early part of the 19th century.

Some promise of relief to the laborers was offered by collective action for the purpose of bargaining with employers.

The odds were against them whenever they tried to organize.
Local "trade clubs" existed in England before the Industrial Revolution, but only in a few skills, and only in certain communities.
The combinations of artisans were broken up by the joint action of employers and the government.
By 1800, trade unions were not allowed in France and England.
Employers feared that riots or uprisings might lead to higher costs, while governments worried that riots or uprisings might lead to higher costs.
Legislation in England in the 18th century allowed unions to exist but limited their activities.

By the middle of the 19th century, England had begun to organize some skilled workers on a nationwide basis.

The cotton spinners began to gain recognition for their associations and to develop modern collective bargaining procedures supported by the power of strikes.
Two million workers were organized into effective bargaining associations by 1900, despite the fact that many legal battles still had to be fought and won by British labor unions.
The United States and other industrial countries have a similar pattern of struggle.

Legislation was seen as a means of remedying industrialism by many workers.

In England, the laboring classes had no political power until after the mid-century, and other social groups succeeded in bringing about needed reforms through legislation.
The state's protective measures were essential to the health and safety of the nation.

The interests of the landed aristocracy were represented by reform legislation.

The best way to promote humane treatment of factory workers was for the land owners to have large investments in industry.
Intellectuals and humanitarians supported the proposals.
Some industrialists supported reforms after accumulating their fortunes.
Factory owners fought all proposed limitations on their freedom to conduct their businesses as they saw fit.

The worst conditions in British industry were removed by a series of parliamentary acts.

Employers were not allowed to hire children under nine years of age, and the labor of those under eighteen was restricted to nine hours a day.
Government inspectors were hired to make sure the regulations were observed.
Wage earners gained the right to vote in 1867.

France and Germany started to catch up to the En glish in industrial growth.

The French bourgeois supported Napoleon III in establishing the Second Empire.
There was nothing new about children working at exhausting, tedious, or dangerous tasks.
This practice was considered abusive and horrifying by the Industrial Revolution.
A picture of a boy hauling coal along a mine tunnel came from a report to the British Parliament.
Middle- and upper-class politicians passed labor legislation in Britain because of depictions of the working classes.

The emperor sympathized with the industrial working class and legalized labor unions in 1864.

As Germany became Europe's largest industrial producer, it took the lead in social legislation.

These reforms were brought about by labor unions, intellectuals, and religious groups.

In 1871, the German chancellor used social legislation to increase citizens' loyalty to the new German Empire.

The Industrial Code of 1891 guaranteed uniform protection to workers throughout the nation.
Sickness and accident insurance and old-age pensions for workers were important later laws.
The Social Insurance Code was a model for other industrialized countries.

The United States was at least a generation behind western Europe in adopting measures of this nature.

By 1890, mergers, trusts, and other forms of business combination were making huge profits, as giant industries developed rapidly after the Civil War.
Many liberals, labor leaders, populists, and small entrepreneurs became alarmed by the growing concentration of economic power.

In the name of liberalism, the power of the American government was called up as a counter force.

The passage of this law was only the beginning of a long and tough contest in which government has sought to protect the public against the excesses of private economic powers; it was looked upon by those powers, however, as an encroachment on their freedom.

The move from farm to town began in the Middle Ages as a response to the revival of commerce, but for centuries the flow was insignificant.

The Industrial Revolution, along with a sudden rise in population, gave peasants the freedom to move and change their occupations, which led to the rapid expansion of European cities.

The population figures before 1800 are only estimates, but they show that the num ber of people in Europe had risen very slowly.

The 19th century saw an increase.
The population of western Europe increased from 150 million to 450 million from 1800 to 1914.
After 1870, the big wave began to roll.
Many factors led to a lowering of the death rate.
Increased food production, planting of more healthy crops, advances in Sanitation, and control of epidemics were some of the things that were increased.
The Industrial Revolution gave more purchasing power to the manufacturing countries, and that power was used to import more food from overseas.

Germany had the largest population of any western European nation by 1910.

Britain had 42 million, followed by France with 41 million, and Italy with 36 million.
The growth was most striking in the cities.
At the start of the Industrial Revolution there were only four English cities with over fifty thousand inhabitants; by 1850, thirty-one of that size, and half the population of Britain was living in cities.
The largest and best known of the new industrial communities was Manchester.
By 1850, it had grown to half a million people.

The way of life of the Western peoples changed as a result of the growth of cities in the 19th century.

The average person had lived on the land as either a smallholding peasant or an agricultural worker.
In most European countries, 80 to 90 percent of the population was occupied in agriculture and only 10 to 20 percent earned a living from industry or commerce.
The proportion was reversed by the late twentieth century.
Less than 10 percent of the population in western Europe and the United States works in agriculture, and the rest of the world is moving in the same direction.

Europe had under 50 people per square mile, except for a narrow belt between northern Italy and the Netherlands.

A single lifetime later, most of Europe had over 50 people per square mile, and the area of heaviest population stretched from Sicily to Scotland.

The population grew in southern Italy and eastern Europe, as well as industrial Britain and Belgium, and the increase in rural Europe fed North American and European cities.

The "backwash" from industrialization and the swift overflow of people from towns and farms overturned deep-set patterns of family and community life that dated back to the Middle Ages.

The factory brought an end to the traditional way of life for the Western people, who were used to being surrounded and dominated by nature in a world that was more of their own making.
The environment was ugly.
The cities did not have paved streets.
The housing for workers was poor.
Refugee from rural poverty poured into the crowded, soot-blackened tenements.
The chronic urban maladies of disease and crime have persisted ever since.

Better education, medical care, theaters, libraries, and merchandise from all over the world were brought to cities.

Poor people felt more deprived in the presence of commodities that they couldn't afford, because the advantages were shared equally.
They didn't find the satisfaction in their daily labor that had brought meaning to the life of the craftsman in the past.
Workers were reduced to attending machines in the factory system.
The tasks were chained to deadening motions.
Workers became replaceable in a production line that turned out standardized, replaceable things.

The office shaped the lives of millions of people from the late 19th century onward.

Big Business and Big Government needed more office workers than factory workers.
In pay and standards of living, white-collar employees did not differ much from ordinary "blue-collar" workers, but since they did not do heavy or dirty manual labor, they considered themselves more respectable.
The lower middle class was formed by self-employed small business owners and storekeepers.

Mass demand and mass production are required for maximum profits.

Advertising was developed to force-feed natural desires in order to keep capital and plant working at their full potential.
Organized "buy" appeals supported and expanded the media of mass communication, overcoming local resistance and tending to make the demand for goods uniform and universal.

The individual became a permanent target of commercial persuaders as the twentieth century went on.

Daily choices would be governed by propaganda.

Mass culture came into being as a result of plastic, com mercialized, and conformist.

It had one constant value and that was concern for material things.
By the beginning of the twentieth century, the heights had reached new heights.
The acquisitive character of the Westerners opened them to the lure of worldly goods.
The machine allowed them to produce wealth beyond their dreams, and the new salesmanship ensured that those dreams would never stop.

There was a wide range of responses to the impact of the machine.

People sought to understand where the machine was leading them and how to adapt it to human ends in different moods.
The system of industrial capitalism that was identified in the 19th century became the focus of analysis and criticism.

Many workers turned to unions and social leg islation to protect themselves and their families.

The reform within the system was not enough for some workers and intellectuals.
They believed that the only hope for a better economic life and a just society lay in a radical change of the system itself.
Most of these critics may be classified as socialists.

The major division among socialists of the 19th century was between "utopians" and Marxists.

As far as Plato, the former belonged to a tradition.
Sir Thomas More's depiction of an ideal society on the imaginary island of Utopia was a good example of their approach.

The utopians in France had two different lines of thought.

Count Henri de Saint-Simon proposed a reorganization of society from the top down, with state ownership of the means of production and control by a national board of scientists, engineers, and industrialists.
The purpose of the industry would be to produce rather than to make money.
The first modern advocates of a nationally planned society were some of Saint-Simon's disciples in France.

A younger contemporary of Saint-Simon took a different ap proach.

In addition to its own farms and manufacturing plants, each phalanx would contain a residential hotel, school, market, health service, and other public facilities.
Surplus production would be exchanged for other goods by barter among the phalanxes; within each plant, workers would change jobs often in order to reduce monotony of performing repetitive tasks.

A few isolated phalanxes were established in America thanks to Fourier's ideas.

Each phalanx was doomed to failure because of its own internal problems.
The impact of the mac hine would have required the development of an extensive system of phalanxes, and there was hardly a chance that this could have come into being.

Robert Owen's efforts failed for the same reason.

Owen, a successful cotton mill owner in New Lanark, Scotland, was distressed by the poverty, ignorance, and immorality of his employees.
He set up a model factory and community in New Lanark because he wanted to change things.
He wanted to reform the whole industrial order after his own local reforms.
Owen observed that the factory system had enslaved workers.
Their condition remained miserable under laissez-faire.
The traditional ties of compassion between master and servant were missing in the new industrial order as morals had fallen along with material standards of living.

The legislation Owen promoted was only to check the worst abuses.

He proposed that the poor be organized into self-sufficient villages after failing to persuade factory owners to follow his example.

Owen's plan was praised by the British press and Parliament.

He turned to the working people themselves after abandoning his appeals to the leaders of government and industry.
He helped to grow several producers' co-ops, including one in Indiana.
Like the others, this venture lasted a few years.
Owen left a mark on public thought and the struggle to lighten the harshness of industrialism.
It took a more rigorous thinker to create a brand of socialism that would meet the capitalist system head on.

Marx believed that the collapse of capitalism was caused by underlying economic developments, rather than by idealistic reformers.

He said that the proper task of workers and intellectuals was to understand the trend of history and participate in its forward movement.

He felt that the appeals of Owen and Fourier distracted people from the correct course of thought and action.

Marx wanted to prove his theories by the evidence of history.

Marx was an heir to the Enlightenment, who was a materialist, rationalist, libertarian, and revolutionist.
Marx's teachings contain strong elements of faith and feeling as well as of reason and science, reflecting the Romantic spirit of his age.

Karl was the son of a middle-class Jewish family and attended the universities of Bonn and Berlin.

A convert to Lutheranism, his father was a lawyer and the son began to prepare for the same profession.
Karl was attracted to the study of history and philosophy and would have liked to become a professor.
He was worried that his liberal political views would make it hard for him to get a university appointment.
He was caught up in the revolution of the 1840s and turned to journalism.

He escaped to London after he participated in the insurrections in the Rhineland.

He was one of the first critics to stress the international character of working-class movements.
Marx helped found the First (Socialist) International after moving to London.
He spent a lot of time in the British Museum.

Marx concluded that all economic value is produced by human labor and that the capitalist takes over a portion of this value.

He claimed that the system promised nothing but misery to the laborers and that it had contradictions that ensured its own destruction.

Marx's economic conclusions were the least important of his ideas.

He was able to join his criticism of capitalism with a revolutionary program based on a unified view of history, politics, and morals.
Marx was given the key to his general view by the philosopher Hegel.
Hegel said that history is governed at any moment by the struggle between a dominant idea and its opposing idea.

Marx had no use for the idea that ideas are the most important forces in history.

He concluded that technological changes that are no longer appropriate to the established economic structure are the main determining force in a given society.
Marx believed that the growth of ideas and institutions are shaped by changes in the mode of production.

Marx said that each mode of production involves class struggle for each class to take advantage of the other.

The ancient world had masters and slaves, as well as nobles and peasants.

The capitalist age had a rich and powerful class of business owners, managers, and stockholders and a poor class of industrial wage-hands.

Marx believed that the ruling class of each age provided laws and institutions to guarantee continued exploitation of the opposing class.
The state becomes a suppression mechanism.
He said that the government of the capitalist state was a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie.

Marx says that when a new mode of production takes shape within the framework of the old, the bonds of established laws break.

The ruling class of the revolution are the agents of the revolution.
He argued that the revolutions in England, North America, and France had been promoted by the bourgeoisie.
The revolutions paved the way for a new capitalist economic order in which the ruling class would be the bourgeoisie.
Marx believed that the bourgeoisie's exploitation of the proletarian class was the most brutal in history.
He felt that the bourgeoisie had played a constructive and progressive role by creating the liberal state and destroying the previous feudal order, which allowed the proletariat to prepare for its own proletarian revolution.
Hegel's view of history was that it was moving irresistibly toward higher and higher goals of human fulfillment.

The hour had struck for the bourgeoisie as it had earlier for the European nobility.

The potential of expanding technology could not be realized within the structure of private capitalism; and the capitalist system of production, hit by increasingly severe depressions, was stumbling toward its end.
The old system brought into existence the class that would overthrow it and build a new order.
The class was being drawn into the industrial centers in ever larger numbers.
Marxist instruction and organization was all that was needed to help history along.

Marx believed that the triumph of the working class would be achieved either through peaceful means or through violent revolution.

This victory would bring an end to the class struggle and everyone would be included in one body of workers.

Marx believed that communism would cause the state to "wither away" because there would be no reason for the existence of a state.

For the first time in civilized history, true liberty for all would come into being.
Voluntary associations would plan and carry out production, individuals would work according to their abilities, and private persuasion and restraint would replace police, prisons, and war in the vaguely outlined communist society.

Marx's vision of the future was a Romantic one, as shown by the failures of Marxist societies in the last decade of the twentieth century.

It had to be accepted on faith.
Marx was the prophet of the "religion of man" that his followers found in his doctrines.
There were Marxist equivalents of apostles and saints.
Marx's writings were defended by "dialectical" theologians.
True believers had to have unquestioning faith in the works of the Party.
Their idealized society would be the Marxist heaven.

It appealed to the working class, but also to many intellectuals who were looking for a change from industrialism.

Some people were dissatisfied because of partial critiques and actions based on a mix of traditional values.
Marxism offered a psychological substitute for religion.

The division among Marx's followers might have been less profound if capitalism had failed.

The established order proved to be much more flexible than he had expected.
Marxist criticism improved the conditions of the workers, as did reform laws and unions.
Marx had predicted that the rich were getting richer, but the poor were not.
In the United States, the young giant of capitalism, no strong revolutionary feeling or class consciousness appeared among the wage earners.

The majority of socialist workers made their peace with the system.

A stand like that wouldn't appeal to the majority of workers.
If Marxist doctrine continued as a major force, it would have to be revised.

The road to the ideal society was mapped by the "revisionists".

They said that democracy, parliamentary methods and class cooperation are ways of achieving further reforms.

The leading advocate for this view was a German socialist.
The "evolutionary" wing of the heirs of Marx was represented by most of the labor parties in European politics after 1890.
In eastern Europe, the absence of representative government prevented change by peaceful, legal methods.
The first great victory of socialism was achieved by the revolutionary Marxists in Russia.

Anarchism took the form of an attack on the established order in the 19th century.

The view holds that any use of authority is an interference with the individual.
If the power of the state were removed, the anarchists claim that voluntary, harmonious c hapter 13: the impact of the mac hine relationships could be achieved among individuals.
The use of violence as a means of realizing their ideas was strongly opposed by the Russian writer and the American essayist.
Others pursued assassination of government officials, terrorism, and insurrection in order to get rid of government.
The most influential person in the creation of these ideas was a Russian nobleman.
In 1876, his followers succeeded in killing Alexander II of Russia, President Sadi Carnot of France, King Humbert I of Italy, and President William McKinley of the United States.
The acts of terror horrified the powerful but did not produce an effective movement for social change or the abolition of state power.
Terrorist killings in the twentieth century were preceded by these acts.

The impact of industrial capitalism and the Marxist attack upon it was intolerable to the established churches of the West.

The one that appeared destructive of certain Christian values and virtues appealed to class hatred and violence.
The pope, the most powerful spokesman of Western Christendom, condemned both of them.

In this carefully drawn, comprehensive statement, he set forth the position of his church on capital and labor relations.

The socialist remedy called for the destruction of private property.

It would be unjust to the lawful owners of the property to deprive the workers of the main object of their labors.
Pope Leo stated that the two classes should be in harmony.

Thomas Aquinas was the leading Catholic philosopher of the Middle Ages.

The common affairs of employers and employees should be guided by moderation and cooperation.
The owners must never make excessive demands on their employees' labor or pay them less than the needs of their families, and working people must give honest work and never hurt the owners or their property.
For the purpose of mutual help and wage bargaining, workers should be allowed to form unions, and if workers find themselves too weak to defend their rightful interests, the government must intervene with protective legislation.

The government must preserve the sanctity of private property at the same time.

Moderates who wanted to see the rewards of labor improved while avoiding industrial violence were offered a guide.

New Catholic trade unions and Catholic political parties were formed in most of the countries of Europe.
The influence of these organizations has been notable.

The Roman Catholic Church was able to present a unified response to the economic changes of the 19th century because of its organizational structure.

The Protestant churches' response reflected their historical divisions into numerous national and denominational groups.

In the wake of scientific findings and rising secularism in the Western world, Christian and Jewish believers were torn between those who accepted the new science and those who didn't.

The impact of industrialization was developing into a serious split.

In England and America, the Anglican Church played a significant role in these efforts.

The Salvation Army was founded in 1865 by William Booth.
He began this campaign in England.

The army sent its "soldiers" onto the city streets in order to save souls but also to collect donations for the needy.

Through the twentieth century, this organization and many others would continue their humanitarian work.

The technological progress, social changes, and class conflicts of the nineteenth century were great leaps in pure science.

The foundations of scientific organization and method were laid in the 17th century.
Science continued to progress in the 18th century.
The intellectual enterprise that decides the fate of the human race is more important than the increase in knowledge.

After the middle of the 19th century, the Industrial Revolution was driven by the progress of pure science.

The influence and prestige of science rose to new heights.
Generals, industrialists, statesmen, theologians, and philosophers sought to ally themselves with scientific doctrine.
In order to establish new branches of "social knowledge" that might draw the kind of respect paid to natural science, social researchers tried to model their methods of inquiry on those of mathematics, physics, or biology.
Due to the work of Charles Darwin, science is now called c hapter 13: the impact of the mac hine into question traditional ideas on the place of humanity in the universe and its relationship to God.

Physical scientists continued to build on the foundations of Galileo.

Energy was one of the most important subjects of their investigations.
Two basic laws of thermodynamics were formulated by experimenters.
The total energy in the universe is unchanging according to the First Law.
The amount of useful energy is diminishing in the universe because of the Second Law, which states that energy systems tend toward degradation.
The laws of motion are supplemented by these generalizations.
Fresh understanding to physicists, chemists, and even philosophers was given by 423-424).

Major theoretical discoveries about electricity, magnetism, and light were made.

Red at one end and indigo at the other.
The spectrum of each chemical substance when heated to incandescence was discovered by scientists in the 19th century.
Astronomers use spectrum analysis to study sources of light in space.
In the spectrum, red is longer-wavelength light, and indigo is light of shorter wavelength, and researchers made progress in identifying the nature of light as a series of waves.

New findings about the nature of electricity and magnetism were linked to these results.

Researchers have been investigating these two forces since the Renaissance and have come to suspect that they are related.
In the middle of the 19th century, Michael Faraday devised many ingenious experiments in which he used magnetism to produce electric currents and vice versa.
He used electricity in one coil of wire to cause a flow of current in another coil that was not connected.
The modern electrical and communications industries were born out of Alexander Graham Bell's invention of the first telephone.

James Clerk Maxwell, a Scottish physicist, used Fara day's results to create a mathematical description of the behavior of electricity and magnetism.

The laws for the behavior of electricity and magnetism were the same as those for the behavior of light.
Only light was visible to the human eye, but invisible electromagnetism must be able to travel in wavelike form with no obvious pathway to conduct it.
The first devices to transmit and receive invisible electromagnetic waves were built in the 19th century.

The theory of matter was discovered in the 19th century.

The ancient Greeks believed that matter was reducible to invisible particles.
Early in the 19th century, a British school teacher found that each chemical element was composed of atoms of different weights.
They concluded that most material substances are made of molecules.
Chemical research in the 19th and early 20th century focused on the analysis of molecule and the synthesis of new ones, with amazing results.

The understanding of the workings of nature that had developed on the basis ofNewton's discoveries led to all of these advances.

This "classical physics" began to be corrected or modified before 1900.

Subsequent research showed that the streams of tiny particles were smaller than the atoms out of which the emitting substances are composed.

Something must be going on in the atoms, which must be built up of still smaller particles.
The solar system is mostly empty space.
The atom is even more complex than first thought.
Their concept was the beginning of modern atomic physics.

The solidity of ob jects was one of the main assumptions of classical physics.

The German physicist Albert Einstein attacked some of the classical assumptions that concern mass, energy, space, and time.
Einstein believed that the universe of nature was not described in the way that he thought it was.
They assumed the existence of an ether, a substance that fills the empty space.
They thought that all changes in positions of objects could be measured by reference to this ether.
Experiments in the late 19th century proved that there was no substance.

Einstein used a different approach to solve the puzzle.

They can only be measured from a point in time and space.
The impact of the mac hine away from a given point can affect the proportions of length and mass.
As bodies approach the speed of light, the alterations become significant.
The speed of light is the only constant in the universe.
Mass can be converted into energy in another way.
The basic concept behind the development of nuclear power and nuclear weapons is that the tiny atomic "solar systems" that make up physical objects can be completely destroyed, releasing all the enormous energy contained within them.

The century of biological and medical progress was just as important as the century of physical science.

Theodor Schwann developed the cell theory from descriptions of cellular structure in plants.
A branch of biology was established for the study of cells after 1835, when it was realized that all living things are composed of tiny cells.

Bacteriology is an outgrowth of the germ theory of disease.

After 1850, little attention was given to the tiny forms of life that had been seen through the primitive microscopes of the 17th century.
Pasteur, a French chemist, thought thatbacteria were the cause of many deadly illnesses.
The cause of disease was not thought of by physicians when they knew of the existence ofbacteria.
Pasteur had the chance to demonstrate the correctness of his theory after years of ridicule.
His first test was against a disease in sheep.

After the germ theory was accepted, it led to the identification, treatment, and prevention of countless diseases, as well as to antiseptic procedures in surgery and improvements in public hygiene.

The mass killers were put under human control.
The germ theory has a significant effect on the world's death rate and the upward curve of human population.

Darwin was able to complete a revolution of thought with respect to the earth's creatures because of the overturn of ancient ideas about the physical universe and its governing principles.

Carolus Linnaeus was responsible for the persistence of this idea.

The idea that all creatures had been placed in a neat and permanent overall scheme was developed by his work as a classifier.
Linnaeus believed that all members of a particular species could be traced back to the original pair formed at the time of the Creation.

There was not enough evidence to prove or disprove this theory before the 19th century.

By 1850, comparative anatomy, embryology, and geology were all pointing to the same conclusion.

Darwin focused his life's work on that theory and established it on the basis of his observations, collected data, and reasoned explanations.

The evolutionary theory was accepted because it suited known facts better than other theories.

All forms of life are descended from a few original creatures.

Each individual and the species of which it is a part has come into existence as a result of a competitive struggle.
Some creatures have an advantage over others because of slight variations in physical qualities.

Without the concept of geological time, Darwin could not have convinced himself that the process of "natural selection" required a sweep of centuries beyond human imagination.

The door to Darwin's theory had been opened by an Englishman.
The earth's age ran into hundreds of millions of years and geological change had been slow and gradual.

Malthus said that reproduction in animals advances at a faster rate than the supply of food.

The fate of nature's creatures is a struggle for survival.
Without the elimination of some individuals and the survival of others, there would be no selection among the variant creatures.

The means by which survival characteristics are transmitted to succeeding generations is the least satisfactory part of Darwin's theory.

He believed that it was a matter of superior individuals passing along their physical characteristics to their offspring.

The basis for a different explanation of heredity was laid down in research by the Austrian botanist.
By studying the results of many generations of plants, he was able to show that a short plant could carry certain characteristics even if it didn't have them.

The theory of evolution was strengthened when researchers in the new science of genetics used Mendel's results to correct Darwin's understanding of heredity.

The research into the cells of which all living things are composed was linked to the new theory of genes.

The growth of living things and the reproduction of living things can be accomplished by means of cell division.

The American geneticist Thomas H. Morgan suggested in 1911 that Mendel's genes are tiny physical entities that are strung out along the chromosomes so as to determine and regulate the physical characteristics of new organisms.

The twentieth-century science of molecular biology would be born out of this insight.

The impact of Darwinism on religion was the most obvious.

The theory was attacked by religious people.
Critics of the theory preferred to think that humans had been created in God's image, even though some Darwinists argued that the divine hand can work its will through evolution.

It was contrary to the reading of the Book of Genesis.

Many Christians were shaken by what appeared to be another blow to their faith and pride.

By the end of the 19th century, the theory of evolution had come to be accepted by educated people, and from the start, there were philosophers, statesmen, industrialists, and theologians who welcomed the doctrine and sought to extend it beyond the biological field.

Herbert Spencer, a brilliant and selfeducated advocate of evolution, was excited by Darwin's writings.
Spencer claimed that the principle of survival of the fittest applies to both living creatures and to human institutions, customs, and ideas as well.
All of these have a cycle of origin, growth, competition, decay, and extinction.
There can be no "absolutes" of religious or moral truth, only the passing truth of ideas that have evolved and survived.

Spencer was not driven to become an atheist by these convictions.

He adapted his faith in God to the new facts of science.
He believed that there must be a supernatural power behind these facts.
He believed that moral standards can be established on the basis of what we know.
Spencer put forward a "science" of ethics based on the principles of natural evolution.

Spencer's morals did not pass muster in the 19th century.

The claim that humans had not been created by God in his own image but had evolved from lower animals was one of the most disturbing of Darwin's ideas.

In this cartoon by the American Thomas Nast, the notion inspired both indignation and mockery.
The laughter has a double target.
Henry Bergh is the founder of the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.

Nature had been shown to be amoral by Darwin.

Darwin saw magnificence in the new view of nature, and he found it exciting.
There is a view of life that is grand.

This creation was achieved through waste and conflict.

Another face had been revealed.

Darwinism can be applied in conflict ing ways.

The idea of a static world, of fixed relations and values, had been overthrown and replaced by the idea of continuous change and struggle.
How people should think and act in relation to the struggle, especially human struggle, was a question that drew profoundly different answers.

The consequences of Darwinism for social action were far-reaching.

The classical economists of his time saw the social struggle as a natural expression of human competition.

The American billionaire John D. Rockefeller once used an attractive metaphor to explain how natural selection worked.

The man who built Standard Oil into a giant monopoly compared his work to that of a flower.
Rockefeller told a Sunday school audience that the American Beauty rose could not have been produced except for sacrificing the buds that grew up around it.
The development of a large business is like survival of the fittest.

In the manner of the jungle, it approved a no-holds-barred struggle of "all against all."

The idea quickly spread from one battle among individuals to another among races and nations.
Slave owners, racists, militarists, and extreme nationalists were strengthened by Darwin's theory.

War is seen as a "pruning hook" for improving the health of humanity.

The mercantilist notion of the "balance of trade" and the rise of the idea of the European "balance of power" were early applications of scientific concepts of motion.

rulers and their advisers began observing and measuring societies in the 18th century.

The value of imports compared with exports, the number of young men of military age, and the fertility of tax were some of the matters that were provided by systematic surveys and censuses.
Classical economics became a well-developed field of knowledge and analysis thanks to statistical information.
The scientific features of an exact vocabulary, advanced mathematical techniques, and methods of prediction were acquired by economics later in that century.

As the natural sciences became more impres sive, more and more people took them as a model for the investigation of society, culture, and human nature, and the result was the rise of a whole range of what now came to be known as.

Auguste Comte was the first thinker.

Comte was a lifelong reformer.
He shared with Saint-Simon that society is best managed by experts, but he believed that the experts needed a more reliable body of knowledge about people and their social relations.
Comte believed that learning should serve human needs and that all studies should be directed to that purpose.

He believed that the most useful knowledge is the type of evidence that is used.

He called it positive knowledge, which was only found in the natural sciences.
Human conduct is not random and can be analyzed and classified.
The proposed managers of society would be able to draw guidance from the social "laws".

Comte died before he could complete his studies about reconstructing knowledge and society.

The foundations of sociology were laid by Herbert Spencer.
The study has focused on physical evolution, prehistoric cultures, and comparative social institutions.

The first laboratory for the observation and testing of human and animal subjects was established in 1872.

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian, gained worldwide notice by his experiments with dogs.
He discovered a principle that could be applied to humans.

By 1900, psychology was moving in many different directions.

They measured the various systems of the body.
The behaviorists hoped to develop a positive knowledge of human nature from the accumulated data.
Such ideas were found distasteful by most philosophers and theologians.
They argued that a person's true being is spiritual rather than physical, and that it is far more complex than the behaviorists imagined.

Sigmund Freud was the leader of this effort to investigate the depths of thought and action.

His methods were clinical.
Each human subject was examined, by means of free discussion and dream recollection, for clues to the inner self.

Jung believed that each individual has a collective unconscious and a personal unconscious.

There are images and instincts connected with long-past experiences of the species in the "collective".
The "great Mother" figure, the Hero, the Sage, and the impact of the mac hine Betrayer are some of the "archetypes" Jung called.
He held that great works of art and literature are seen as great because they portray figures that are projected from the collective unconscious of their creators.

History flourished in the 19th century as one of the most ancient studies concerned with human affairs.

Much of the writing was marked by careful research and literary merit.
Leopold von Ranke started the "objective" school of historical writing in Germany.
Sentiment and national bias were to be set aside, and historical documents were to be collected and interpreted in a rigorously critical fashion.
Historians from all over the world used the "scientific" approach at the end of the century.

The insistence on correct method was wholesome, as Ranke wrote some excellent histories.

The account of individuals and societies can never be told with anything like the precision of natural science because of serious philosophical and practical objections raised against his assumptions.
There are lessons in history, but they are different interpretations by different writers.
Deconstructionists argue that words in a source document can't equate with reality.
The Muse of history has never felt at ease in the social sciences.
She loves philosophy, literature, and the arts.

Writers and painters responded to the changes in civilization caused by science and the machine.

By the middle of the 19th century, new goals and forms that would eclipse Romanticism in European literature and art were developed.

Honore de Balzac began writing successful novels late in the 1820s.

He set the style of reporting of human strengths and weaknesses that marked French literature for the rest of the century.

Realism focused on the social effects of the Industrial Revolution.

Charles Dickens, one of the most popular authors of the era, called attention to the cruelties of the urban working class.

Dickens's books have a strong note of social protest, and they contributed to the reform legislation of the nineteenth century.

Ibsen was the Continental writer who addressed himself most directly to the problems of his day.

His reputation first rested on the social content of his dramas, as he is now recognized as one of the prime molders of modern dramatic form and technique.
The son of a once-prosperous businessman, Ibsen grew up with contempt toward his own society.
Middle-class audiences were hostile to these works.

George Bernard Shaw, a brilliant Irish author, was among Ibsen's admirers, and he turned his own pen to the cause of social criticism.

Shaw wrote nearly fifty plays during his long life.
His characters tend to be twodimensional and serve mainly as bearers of intellectual argument.

Shaw was a self-taught economist and one of the founding members of English socialism during the last part of the ninth century.

The Russian novel began in the Romantic era.

The best Russian novelists of the 20th century, Feodor Dostoevsky and Leo Tolstoy, worked under the influence of Realism.
Both were concerned with the inner life and struggles of the individual while describing the color and detail of Russian life.

The only thing that holds these weary people together is that they are sitting in the same railroad car.

The woman with the basket and the nursing mother are strong and noble.
The feature of working-class life in the age of mass transportation is reported by Daumier and he expresses his admiration for the people who have to live it.

Only a few individuals in the arts have expressed social protest.

The Realist school had two French artists, Gustave Courbet and Honore Daumier.
Both were against the Romantic tradition and sympathized with the poor.
The poverty and despair of the working class were depicted by Daumier while Courbet emphasized the simple and honest representation of nature.
He died a penniless man in 1879, and his life was recorded in his art.

The "unfinished" effect of his canvases continued beyond his death.

The most important development in nineteenth-century painting was the style of Impressionism.
The Impressionists had nothing to do with social satire or protest.
They wanted to record images with accuracy and without concern for any kind of message.

The paint-dappled surface of Monet's canvas guides the viewer's imagination to form an "impression" of a complex, changing scene.

The waves are covered in paint, the fishing boats are covered in paint, the cranes and masts are covered in paint, and the smokestacks are covered in paint.

Emile Zola said that the effect is "living, profound, and above all truthful" because it doesn't try to be realistic.

The aims and achievements of Impression ism were represented by Claude Monet.

He wanted to record his physical appearances as soon as possible.
In order to do this faithfully, he disciplined himself to suppress his prior knowledge of the shape and detail of things.
Monet wanted to work in the open air because of the changes in appearance that resulted from the change in light.

There was no clear detail in Monet's work.

In 1874, in an exhibit with other painters of the new style, he showed a picture of a harbor.

An unfriendly observer used the term "Impressionists" as a label for these artists.

Critics and the public appreciated the special aims of this kind of painting.

The methods of scientific observation were associated with the techniques of the Impressionists.
They simply yielded to the delight of producing their rich color and tone.
Auguste Renoir in France and Mary Cassatt in the United States were painters.
Renoir's nudes were admired for their attractiveness, as well as his portraits of young children with their mothers.

Finely detailed paintings of food and utensils were pioneered by Dutch painters.

Cezanne left details to photographers in the 19th century.
The objects form a flat pattern on the canvas because there is no single perspective.
Like Monet, Cezanne has stopped reproducing exact appearances in his search for underlying truth.

The success of the Impressionists gave all artists a sense of power and freedom.

Any combination of forms and colors can now be considered art.
The Realism of Daumier was inspired by a deeper sense of alienation from society.
Most artists turned their backs on society in order to escape into a separate world of art where they could impose whatever rules they wanted on elements of their own creation.
Impressionism was a beginning and not an end.
There were new stirrings in art at the close of the 19th century.
Many of the techniques of the new style were adopted by Paul Cezanne.
He wanted to combine the brilliance of their coloring with more substantial forms, and he objected to the airy, temporary quality of Impressionist paintings.

The aim was to create several angles of view on a single canvas by shifting eye levels to look at the various objects in the painting.

He considered a more satisfying balance of light and form due to the fact that the image was not available due to the shapes of objects and avoided symmetrical lines.

The younger artist,Vincent van Gogh, had different goals.

Van Gogh learned from the Impressionists how to use special brush techniques.
He wanted to express his deep feelings about nature and life, and he wasn't interested in the outward appearances of things.
The modern school of expressionist painters was started by Van Gogh.

Van Gogh's brief life was marked by spiritual and mental stress.

The son of a Dutch Protestant minister, he felt a divine creative force within nature and all forms of life and sought to show it in his paintings.
His works were the result of an emotional frenzy that led to mental illness.
He took his own life when he was afraid that he wouldn't be able to paint.

He produced a series of canvases in the years before his death.

Stimulated by the sun-drenched countryside, he painted it with gusto, applying color with greater gusto and freedom than any painter had done before him.
He didn't try to mimic the colors of nature.
His favorite color was yellow and he used it to express his love for God.
There was blue, pale violet, and green.
In the last years of the 19th century, there was a great and sensitive talent.

In Germany, expressionism took a different turn.

Kathe Kollwitz focused more on human subjects than on nature.
She chose to show the emotional life of women in their many roles, occupations, and endeavors.
The impact of the mac hine she usually worked in the print media, as well as in sculpture, instead of using the paintbrush.

Treatments of social change in the nineteenth century are included in the general histories listed in the previous section.

The World History Resources Center at http://history.wadsworth.com/west_civ/ offers a variety of tools to help you succeed in this course.

The 4,500-year-old monuments of the pharaohs look down upon a twenty-first-century celebration, which is indicative of the global reach of Western civilization.

By the end of the century, the shifts in Western civilization had begun to make their full impact.

Science and technology, capitalism and urbanization, liberalism and nationalism, and artistic and cultural experiment all have the potential to change.

The forces were bound to take effect throughout the world and could not be limited to Western civilization's European and North American heartland.

From the late 19th century to the early 20th century, there have been spectacular change within Western civilization, a rapid merging of Western and non-Western civilizations, and the growth of a new pattern of modern global civilization.

The terms of the merger between West and non-West have been continually redefined over the last century and a half.

Both are the result of a complex process of interaction among individuals, nations, social classes, cultural groups, and civilizations that continues today.
The organization of modern global civilization--its distribution of wealth and power among all those groups--and its culture and values are at stake in this process.

The shaping of modern global civilization has involved processes of conflict between Western and non-Western civilizations.

The era has seen the rise and fall of colonial empires, as well as the rise and fall of communism.

The era has seen the erosion of old beliefs, values, and patterns of behavior by new ones: the challenge of secular ideologies to traditional religions, drastic alterations in artistic techniques of representing human experience, and a historic shift in the balance of status and power between men and women.

The era has seen the deliberate infliction of suffering on the largest scale in the history of the human race--the trench warfare and indiscriminate bombing of the world wars.

In the twenty-first century, the cultural conflicts, power struggles, and atrocities associated with the birth of global civilization continue--disputes within Islam and between Islam and Western countries over the veiling of women.

Peaceful accommodation and interchange are just as important as the coming into being of modern global civilization.

National governments, Western and non-Western, pool some of their sovereignty in order to limit the damage of economic globalization.

The depiction of this worldwide accommodation and interchange is best exemplified by global civilization's pantheon saints.

Notable examples are Mohandas Gandhi, India's leader against both foreign colonialism and its own caste system, eager student of Western literature and thought, and Hindu holy man, and Martin Luther King, who was a follower of Gandhi.
Such people combine in their actions ancient religious traditions, modern secular goals, Western and non-Western origins and influences, canny use of mass organization and propaganda, and the waging of bitter conflicts without the use of force.

The realities of coming into being of global civilization are very different from the ideals that people embody.

A civilization with common ideals and leaders who express them has a chance of becoming a diverse and harmonious community.