Section 4.2 A Runner on a Curved Track
Chapter 4 Angular Motion rotation, the resultant force Fr passes through her center of gravity and the unbalancing torque is eliminated.
The angle θ is obtained from the relationships (see Fig. 4.2b)
Fr sin θ Fcp Wv2
(4.7)
gR
and Fr cos θ W
(4.8)
Therefore tan θ v2
(4.9)
gR
The proper angle for a speed of 6.7 m/sec (this is a 4-min. mile) on a 15-mradius track is tan θ (6.7)2 0.305 9.8 × 15 θ 17◦
No conscious effort is required to lean into the curve. The body automatically balances itself at the proper angle. Other aspects of centrifugal force are examined in Exercises 4-2, 4-3, and 4-4.
4.3
Pendulum
Since the limbs of animals are pivoted at the joints, the swinging motion of animals is basically angular. Many of the limb movements in walking and running can be analyzed in terms of the swinging movement of a pendulum.
The simple pendulum shown in Fig. 4.3 consists of a weight attached to a string, the other end of which is attached to a fixed point. If the pendulum is displaced a distance A from the center position and then released, it will swing back and forth under the force of gravity. Such a back-and-forth movement is called a simple harmonic motion. The number of times the pendulum swings back and forth per second is called frequency (f ). The time for completing one cycle of the motion (i.e., from A to A and back to A) is called the

Section 4.3 PendulumFIGURE 4.3 The simple pendulum.
period T. Frequency and period are inversely related; that is, T 1/f. If the angle of displacement is small, the period is given by
T 1 2π
(4.10)
f
g
where g is the gravitational acceleration and is the length of the pendulum arm. Although this expression for T is derived for a small-angle swing, it is a good approximation even for a relatively wide swing. For example, when the swing is through 120◦ (60◦ in each direction), the period is only 7% longer than predicted by Eq. 4.10.
As the pendulum swings, there is continuous interchange between poten tial and kinetic energy. At the extreme of the swing, the pendulum is momentarily stationary. Here its energy is entirely in the form of potential energy. At this point, the pendulum, subject to acceleration due to the force of gravity, starts its return toward the center. The acceleration is tangential to the path of the swing and is at a maximum when the pendulum begins to return toward the center. The maximum tangential acceleration amax at this point is given by amax 4π2A
(4.11)
T 2


Chapter 4 Angular Motion
As the pendulum is accelerated toward the center, its velocity increases, and the potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. The velocity of the pendulum is at its maximum when the pendulum passes the center position (0).
At this point the energy is entirely in the form of kinetic energy, and the velocity (vmax) here is given by vmax 2πA
(4.12)
T
4.4
Walking
Some aspects of walking can be analyzed in terms of the simple harmonic motion of a pendulum. The motion of one foot in each step can be considered as approximately a half-cycle of a simple harmonic motion (Fig. 4.4). Assume that a person walks at a rate of 120 steps/min (2 steps/sec) and that each step is 90 cm long. In the process of walking each foot rests on the ground for 0.5 sec and then swings forward 180 cm and comes to rest again 90 cm ahead of the other foot. Since the forward swing takes 0.5 sec, the full period of the harmonic motion is 1 sec. The speed of walking v is v 90 cm × 2 steps/sec 1.8 m/sec (4 mph) FIGURE 4.4 Walking.