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Identifying processes can give you a basis for understanding different times and places in history.
You can determine what stages of the process in other industrializing regions are the same or different if you know what China did.
Travelers such as Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta documented the wonders they saw and the extraordinary people they met.
The arrival of a new religion can unify people and provide justification for a kingdom's leadership.
It influenced the literary and artistic culture of areas to which it spread, where themes, subjects, and styles were inspired by the religion.
Increased trade resulted in technological innovations that helped shape the era.
Buddhism came to China from India via the Silk Roads, and the 7th-century Buddhist monk Xuanzang helped make it popular.
Although some leaders in China did not want China's native religions diminished as a result of the spread of Buddhism, Chan Buddhism remained popular among ordinary Chinese citizens.
Many Confucians began to adopt its ideals into their daily lives under the Song Dynasty.
Buddhist writers influenced Chinese literature by writing in the vernacular rather than the formal language of Confucian scholars, a practice that became widespread.
The sketch style of painting uses the fewest lines possible to suggest a subject, and is credited with being started by Mu-ch'i.
Confucian classics were studied by the educated elite while Buddhist doctrine attracted peasants.
The Indian religions of Hinduism and Buddhism made their way to Southeast Asia through trade.
Buddhist priests advised monarchs on matters of government because of Buddhism's strong influence.
Both Hindu and Buddhist culture can be seen in the royal monuments at Angkor Thom.
Mughal Indian features, local traditions, and Chinese-Buddhist and Confucian traits were combined by Muslim rulers in Southeast Asia.
Muslim characters and techniques were absorbed by traditional Javanese stories, puppetry and poetry.
Islamic scholars translated Greek literary classics into Arabic to save them from oblivion.
With a reliable food supply, the population grew, as did cities and industries, such as the production of porcelain, silk, steel, and iron.
Papermaking and printing technology helped lead to a rise in literacy in Europe in the 13th century.
The home of poets such as Lu Yu and Xin Qiji was the center of culture in southern China.
The centers of Islamic scholarship, bustling markets, and sources for fresh water and plentiful food were both located there.
The end of the High Middle Ages is believed to have been marked by the fall of the city to the Ottomans.
Crusaders encountered both the Byzantine and Islamic cultures, which increased their knowledge of the world beyond Western Europe.
Exposure to new ideas from Byzantium and the Muslim world would contribute to the rise of secularism.
As exchange networks intensified and literacy spread as a result of paper and printing technology, an increasing number of travelers within Afro-Eurasia wrote about their journeys for eager readers.
Most of them dress themselves in silk because of the large amount of material produced in Hangzhou, which is exclusive to what the merchants import from other provinces.
I set out alone, having neither fellow-traveller in whose company I might find cheer, nor caravan whose part I might join, but swayed by an overmastering impulse within me and a desire long-cherished in my bosom to visit these illustrious sanctuaries.
She relates details of her travel experiences, such as being overcome by the sight of Jerusalem as she approached it, and nearly falling off her donkey.
Kempe conveys both the intense spiritual visions and feelings of her mystical experiences and the trials of everyday life for a woman with 14 children.
The Christian Polo, son of a European merchant, lived and worked in countries whose cultures and religions were foreign to him, while Ibn Battuta traveled primarily in Muslim-ruled lands.
Marco Polo was able to communicate with foreigners and work as an administrator for the Chinese emperor because of his knowledge of four Asian languages.
He remained culturally an "outsider" to the peoples he met while on his travels, which enhanced his power of observation and stimulated his natural curiosity.
Ibn Battuta was accepted as a respected Muslim jurist and student of Islamic mysticism by his hosts when he traveled.
Traveling to more than sixty Muslim courts, where he met rulers and their officials, Ibn Battuta was able to judge the behavior of his hosts in light of the Muslim scripture, the Koran, and the precepts of Islamic law.
The development of credit institutions and instruments was stimulated by the borrowing and lending necessary for most of the crusaders.
The inflation that occurred during the Crusades may have been caused by the transformation of altar ornaments into coins.
The market for real estate in the age of the Crusades was brought about by the sale of land to finance it.
What strengths and limitations a source may have in interpreting history will be determined by the answers to these questions.
Although trade networks enabled the spread of novel agricultural products, such as the introduction of certain citrus fruits to the Mediterranean basin, the most dramatic environmental consequence of increased commerce was disease.
Along with luxury goods, spices, textiles, and religions, merchants in some places introduced crops they had not grown before.
It was widely distributed in China to meet the needs of the growing population.
Many parts of China were once thought to be useless for growing rice because of terraced farming in the uplands and paddies in the lowlands.
Bananas allowed the Bantu-speaking peoples with their metallurgy skills and farming techniques to migrate to places where yams were not easy to grow.
Farmers increased their land to grow bananas, which enriched diet and led to population growth.
New fruits and vegetables, as well as rice and citrus products from Southwest Asia, were introduced to Europe by the markets of Samarkand.
The use of enslaved people in the Americas in the 1500s and after was a result of Europeans' high demand for sugar.
In the valleys, people have long grown melons, grapes, apples, oranges, and other fruits.
No knowledge at the time could have prevented the spread of deadly infectious diseases that accompanied trade.
As feudalism declined, this shift helped lay the groundwork for economic changes.
The Black Death resulted in the loss of life in other areas, including North Africa, China, and Central Asia.
The black plague outbreak devastated nations and caused populations to disappear in both the East and the West.
Efforts to fulfill agricultural and other needs associated with increased population may lead to pressure on resources, including environmental degradation, and the population may decline as a result or be vulnerable to disease or conquest.
In other ways, such as the type of currency it used and how the government made money on trade, it was different from other cities.
As agrarian cultures consolidated into stable settlements, interregional trade began.
The technological upgrades that made trade more profitable were nautical equipment such as the magnetic compass and lateen sail, high-yielding strains of crops, and saddles to allow for the carriage of heavy loads of goods.
Malacca used its wealth to develop a strong navy that required centralized planning.
States shifted to a money economy based on gold and other metal coins.
The Chinese invented "flying cash" and established banks to make commerce less bulky.
Efforts to make production more efficient were spurred by the rising demand for luxury goods.
China went through a period of industrialization during which it sought to meet the demand for iron, steel, and porcelain.
Partnerships for sharing the risk of investment began to emerge as a new business practice.
The production of goods such as textiles and porcelain in China and spices in South and Southeast Asia increased to meet demands.
Free peasant farmers, craft workers or artisans in cottage industries, people forced to work to pay off debts, and people forced into labor through enslavement are some of the forms of labor from earlier periods.
Irrigation canals, military defenses, great buildings, called for the work of thousands of organized laborers, are large-scale projects.
Between 1200 and 1450, the typical social structures were still defined by class or caste, and societies remained patriarchal.
Women in Southeast Asia were skilled in operating and controlling marketplaces as representatives of powerful families.
Outside of these limited areas, women in other major regions still have less opportunities and freedom than men.
The population decline was caused by the transfer of the bubonic plague and other infectious diseases along the trade routes.
Changes in trade networks led to the development of educational centers in cities such as Canton, Samarkand, Timbuktu, Cairo, and Venice.
The stories of his massacres of innocent people and the use of civilians to protect his soldiers show him to have had little regard for human life.
The links between China and Europe had been severed due to Khan's creation of a system of Eurasian trade.
Evaluate the amount of historical evidence that supports one of the viewpoints of Genghis Khan.
Writing answers to long essay questions requires historical thinking skills.
Explain the historical concept, identify the exact task development, or process, and analyze the question.
You will need to identify, describe, and explain patterns and connections to complete the task.
Make a historical y defensible claim related directly out a line of reasoning by developing a thesis.
As you tie together your complex argument, reinforce and extend relevant and insightful connections.
In a small group, explain how to earn the most points on a long essay question.
The beginning of the early modern era is thought to be the success of the Mongols' military and commercial empire in the 13th century.
An argument can be made that the Mongol Empire was significant in larger patterns of continuity or change between 1200 and 1450.
During the period from 1200 to 1450, goods and ideas flowed through African and Eurasian trade networks.
Evaluate the extent to which the various networks of exchange were similar or different in that time and place.
In the period from 1200 to 1450, weather patterns, foods, and disease affected exchange networks.
The primary purpose of most African and Eurasian trading networks between 1200 and 1450 was economic, but ideas and art also traveled through them.
An argument can be made about the extent to which trading networks in these regions affected cultural traditions.
You should respond to the prompt with a historically defensible thesis or claim that establishes a line of reasoning.
Historical reasoning can be used to frame or structure an argument that addresses the prompt.
You should respond to the prompt with a historically defensible thesis or claim that establishes a line of reasoning.
An argument about the prompt should include at least one additional piece of specific historical evidence.
Explain how or why the document's point of view, purpose, historical situation, and/or audience is relevant to an argument.
A man doesn't pass on his inheritance except to the sons of his sister and they don't veil themselves in the prayers.
The moral nature of a woman is typified by being upright and modest, reserved and quiet, correct and dignified, sincere and honest.
Being filial, respectful, human and perspicacious, loving and warm, meek and gentle, these represent the complete development of the moral nature of old, upright women.
When a Chinese goes to this country, the first thing he must do is take in a woman with a view to profiting from her trading abilities.
Joan was a young girl from the town of Domremy in the French county of Lorraine, who felt she was called by God to help the French resist the English in the Hundred Years War.
If you don't do these things, I am the commander of the military, and I will find your men in France if they don't obey, and the Maid will have them.
Between these years, several of history's greatest land-based empires reached their peak of wealth and influence.
They had direct political control over large regions and overland trade routes.
They built palaces, religious buildings, and shrines to show their wealth and power.
Millions of people died in Europe in wars fought by Roman Catholics and Protestants.
The importance of ethnic identities for individuals, ocean routes for trade, and economic relationships among businesses undermined the unity and influence that land-based empires initially developed.
Martin Luther was weakened by the German religious divine right of monarchs.
He personally led Ottoman armies in conquering Christian strongholds in Serbia, Rhodes, and Hungary.
The Gunpowder Empire societies tended to be militaristic, yet all three left splendid artistic and architectural legacies, created in part to reflect the legitimacy of their rulers.
In case another empire questioned their right to trade, they kept troops and weapons at the ready.
Several countries in Europe became wealthy after the slow political and economic development of the Middle Ages.
The nature of the new monarchies in Europe in the 1500s was due to the desire of certain leaders to control taxes, the army, and many aspects of religion.
The new monarchs were the Tudors in England, the Valois in France, and Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand in Spain.
Ivan IV allowed the Stroganovs to hire Cossacks to fight the local tribes in order to control the fur trade.
Moscow could trade with Persia and the Ottoman Empire without having to deal with the strong forces of the Crimean Tartars.
The local shamans continued to have influence despite Missionaries converting many to the Eastern Orthodox faith.
The Wall was expanded under the Ming Dynasty to help keep out invaders from the north.
China's control of the region today is a reflection of its protection of Tibet, the mountainous land north of India.
The mass killings of the local population were caused by the military campaigns initiated in lands west of China.
The local Muslim population, called Uighurs, have never fully integrated into Chinese culture.
The emptying of the empire's treasury was a result of unsuccessful campaigns against Vietnam.
Needing funds, the Qing Dynasty sold limited trading privileges to the European powers but kept them in Guangzhou.
The Emperor wrote a letter to King George III stating that the Chinese didn't need British manufactured goods.
The Chinese bureaucracy became corrupt during the later part of Qianlong's reign and levied high taxes on the people.
The White Lotus Rebellion was formed in response to the high taxes and the desire to restore the Ming Dynasty.
The leader of the Ottoman Empire was descended from a Turkic nomad who lived in Central Asia.
The Gunpowder Empires' initial success was due to their own military might and the weakness and corruption of the regimes that they replaced.
The Gunpowder Empires continued to expand as European nations fought among themselves to topple the new powers in the east.
Tamerlane moved out of the trading city of Samarkand to make ruthless conquests in Iran and India.
The willingness to serve as a holy fighter for Islam is a model for warrior life.
The ghazi ideal was said to be the model for warriors who participated in the rise of the Gunpowder Empires.
Some historians believe that Tamerlane's violent takeover of areas of Central Asia included the massacre of 100,000 Hindus before the gates.
The buildings that are still standing in Samarkand are reminders of his interest in architecture and decorative arts.
While the empire he created fell apart, Tamerlane's invasions were a testament to gunpowder's significance.
The rise and fall of the three Asian Gunpowder Empires are the focus of the rest of this chapter.
The capital of the Byzantine Empire was established after Mehmed II's forces besieged Constantinople.
The lands around the western edge of the Black Sea were seized by the armies of Mehmed II.
The Ottoman navy was strengthened to counter the power of Venice, a state on the Adriatic Sea with a robust maritime trade.
Syria, Israel, Egypt, and Algeria were added to the Ottoman empire in the early 16th century.
The ability of the Ottomans to send troops so far into Christian Europe caused great fear in the area.
As the state adapted to new internal and external pressures, the Ottoman Empire would experience a transformation.
Europeans advised Abbas' troops about the new military technology that he imported from Europe.
Shah Ismail built a power base that denied legitimacy to any Sunni and used Shi'a Islam as a unifying force.
Tabriz, a city in Persia that became part of the border between Sunni and Shi'a societies, was stopped by the Ottomans in 1541.
Although women are rarely mentioned in local histories, they were allowed to participate in their societies.
Although they were still veiled and restricted in their movements, safavid women had access to rights provided by Islamic law for inheritance and divorce.
He formed a central government similar to that of Suleiman in Turkey after completing conquests in northern India.
Textile, tropical foods, spices, and precious stones were all traded for gold and silver.
Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and the Shudras are categorized into four groups by the caste system.
Vocational and educational opportunities are based on the Indian caste system.
The decline of the Gunpowder Empires was caused by Western Europe's economic and military strength.
After Suleiman's death, a European force made up mostly of Spaniards and Venetians defeated the Ottomans in a naval conflict.
The Ottomans fell victim to weak sultans and strong European neighbors after Suleiman's reign.
The leaders who followed Shah Abbas combined lavish lifestyles and military spending with falling revenues, resulting in a weakened economy.
Shah Jahan's son, Aurangzeb, took over an empire that was weakened by corruption and failed to keep up with military innovations.
Aurangzeb wanted to increase the size of the empire and bring all of India under Muslim rule.
Some of the uprisings were sparked by Aurangzeb's insistence on an austere and pious Islamic lifestyle.
The rise of the Turkic empire was set in motion by Tamerlane's invasion of Central Asia and the Middle East.
The defense and propagation of Shi'a doctrines at home and abroad was a priority of the Safavi empire.
Akbar's reply was that he had forbidden anyone to prevent or interfere with the building of the Hindu temples because they were idolatry.
The expansion of empires in Russia, China, and Southwest, Central, and South Asia took place between 1450 and 1750.
By the end of the 16th century, centralization of power by controlling taxes, the army, and some aspects of religion coalesced into a system of government that led to a powerful monarch in England and absolute monarchy in France.
Building temples, paying the military elite a salary, and forcibly establishing a captive governmental bureaucracy were some of the methods used to solidify authority in other states.
Their job was to maintain peace in the counties of England and to carry out the monarch's laws.
The Bill of Rights guaranteed protection against tyranny of the monarchy by requiring the agreement of Parliament on matters of taxation and raising an army.
Jean Bodin, Henry IV's advisor, advocated for the divine right of the monarchy.
He wanted to hold absolute power and expand French borders, just as Richelieu did.
The French government was weakened by Louis and his successors' refusal to share power.
The justices of the peace increased through the years of Tudor rule and became among the most important and powerful groups.
The Bill of Rights guaranteed protection against tyranny of the monarchy by requiring the agreement of Parliament on matters of taxation and raising an army.
Jean Bodin, Henry IV's advisor, advocated for the divine right of the monarchy.
He combined were the peasants, who would gradually sink more and more deeply into debt the lawmaking and the justice system in his own person.
Ruled during golden age, the oprichnina's methods would be reflected later in the development of the Russian secret police.
The Romanovs had three main groups in Russia that had conflicting desires and agendas: the Church, the boyars and the royal family.
To gain full control of the throne, Peter had to defeat his half- sister Sophia and her supporters.
The Streltsy rebelled against Peter's rule and were integrated into Russia's regular army.
Peter reorganized the Russian government by creating 8 provinces and 50 administrative divisions.
Christian boys who were subjects of the empire were recruited to serve in the Ottoman government.
One-fifth of the conquered land's wealth was owed to the enslaved people, who were considered tribute to the empire after conquest.
Muslims and Jews were forcibly removed from their families in order to comply with Islamic law.
The Christian boys received a high level of education and were taught skills in politics, the arts, and the military.
The Ming brought back the civil service exam, established a national school system, and reestablished the bureaucracy to help accomplish this goal.
The Chinese bureaucracy became corrupt during the later part of Qianlong's reign, which resulted in high taxes on the people.
Each daimyo had an army of warriors, ambition to conquer more territory, and power to rule his fiefdoms as he saw fit.
The samurai were paid first in rice and then in gold, which gave them significant economic power.
Japan was divided into 250 hans, territories, each of which was controlled by a daimyo who had his own army.
If the daimyo himself was visiting his home territory, his family had to stay in Tokyo, essentially as hostages, because the Tokugawa government required that daimyo maintain residences both in their home territory and also in the capital.
Akbar's fame spread so fast that capable men from many parts of Central Asia came to serve him.
Akbar created a strong, centralized government and an effective civil service.
They were given grants of land and allowed to keep a portion of the taxes paid by local peasants, who contributed one third of their produce to the government.
The idea of the divine right of monarchy was sought to legitimize the authority of the monarch.
Peter the Great's conquest of the Baltic Sea gave Russia its own warm-water port.
Peter moved the Russian capital from Moscow so he could keep an eye on the boyars who were working in his government.
Peasants and Swedish war prisoners were forced to work, draining marshes and building streets and government structures.
Askia the Great made an elaborate pilgrimage to Mecca and promoted Islam throughout his kingdom.
He supported an efficient bureaucracy to bring the empire together, as well as legitimizing his rule through promoting Islam.
The western end of the Silk Road was renamed Constantinople, and the Grand Bazaar there was still full of foreign imports.
Many mosques, forts, and other great buildings were built under Suleiman I's control.
The cathedral of Saint Sophia in Constantinople was restored by the Ottomans, who turned it into a grand mosque.
Ottoman miniature paintings and illuminated manuscripts became famous after Mehmed II established a workshop for their production.
The nobles were kept away from conducting business elsewhere, such as fomenting rebellion in their home provinces, because Louis XIV entertained them there.
Raising money to fund the goals of imperial expansion and extend state power was a key endeavor in all of the world's empires.
The state owned shipyards in St. Petersburg and iron mines in the Ural Mountains.
He encouraged private industries such as metallurgy, woodwork, gunpowder, leather, paper, and mining.
Peter began to force workers to work in the shipyards when industrialization failed to bring in the revenue he needed for his military ventures.
The upkeep of officers and troops continued to be a burden for agricultural villages.
The economic decline of the empire would be caused by this burden of taxes and the military.
After about 1580, wars, extravagant imperial spending, and the suppression of rebellions left the dynasty in bankruptcy.
Most Aztec citizens, merchants, and artisans paid taxes when they were conquered by the Mexica.
Local officials could rule their districts as long as they obeyed Songhai policies.
One of the most controversial figures of the African Middle Ages was Sunni Ali, who reigned from 1464 to 1492 and was demonized as an enemy of the faith by the Muslim narrative sources.
By the 1470s, Sunni Ali had conquered the central part of the 'inland delta', including the wealthy and scholarly cities of Timbuktu and Jenne.
He was aware that a vast empire could not be held together by military conquest alone, but needed an effective and efficient administrative structure as well.
The organization of Songhai government which was developed to a great degree under Sunni Ali was different from previous Sudanic patterns of empire.
Farmers in all provinces are not allowed to own swords, bows, spears, firearms, or other types of weapons.
Hideyoshi's government requires the heads of the provinces, samurai who receive a grant of land, and deputies to submit their weapons to them.
One technological advancement allowed Hideyoshi and other shoguns to enforce such edicts over farmers.
During the 16th and 17th centuries, Christianity split into several groups, leading to significant historical changes.
French King Henry IV converted to Catholicism in 1593 in order to solidify his power and ensure peace.
The break between the Sunni and Shi'a branches of Islam was deepened by political rivalries between the Ottoman and Safavid empires.
Sikhism gave a way to combine Hindu and Sufi Muslim beliefs.
The European shift from feudalism to centralized governments was a challenge for the Roman Catholic Church.
Church councils and reform movements were caused by efforts to curb corruption.
Wycliffe was vilified for making parts of the Bible available to the mass of believers who didn't read or understand Latin.
The followers of Jan Hus were declared heretics in the early 14th century because of their beliefs.
He opposed the requirement for celibacy of the clergy because he argued that the rule was imposed long after the scriptures were written.
Newly centralizing rulers began confiscating wealthy Catholic monasteries and establishing their own churches.
He believed that women played an important role in the family, particularly in teaching their children to read the Bible.
Calvinists believed their work ethic elevated them to positions of secular leadership.
Charles V spent most of his reign defending the integrity of the Holy Roman Empire from the Protestant Reformation, as the Orthodox Church and Reforms in Russia had rejuvenated the concept of the universal monarchy.
As he moved against the Orthodox Church, Peter the Great of Russia asserted his authority.
The minimum age for men to become monks was raised by Peter, who preferred that the young serve first as soldiers.
The areas of Western Europe near the Mediterranean Sea were still dominated by Catholicism despite the Counter-Reformation.
The lead of the home country in religion was followed by later colonies of the European powers.
Charles V abdicated as ruler of the Holy Roman Empire due to his inability to stop the spread of Lutheranism.
Many skilled craftsmen left France to take knowledge of important industry techniques and styles with them.
The Thirty Years' War began as a religious conflict between the Holy Roman Empire and European powers.
The rulers of various areas of the Holy Roman Empire were allowed to choose their denominations.
The states of Prussia and Austria are no longer part of the Holy Roman Empire.
Prussia developed a strong military after it was destroyed during the Thirty Years' War.
European politics would be influenced by the Prussian military tradition in the 20th century.
Islam was an enduring belief system that spread its sphere of influence despite the fact that there were differing opinions within it.
The area had been ruled by the Byzantine Empire and followed the Eastern Orthodox religion.
Criminal justice, marital laws, and issues of inheritance are all dealt with in this strict Islamic legal system.
Shah Ismail built a power base that denied legitimacy to any Sunni and used Shi'a Islam as a unifying force.
The Ottoman Empire experienced frequent hostilities due to this strict adherence to Shi'a Islam.
One of the world's outstanding rulers, Akbar encouraged learning, art, architecture, and literature.
He tried to prohibit child marriages and sati, the ritual in which widows kill themselves by jumping on the funeral pyres of their husbands.
In the early 1600s, scientific thinking gained popularity in northern Europe as Renaissance ideas, curiosity, investigation, and discovery spread.
In a time of religious schisms, scientific thought was a very different kind of thinking, one based on reason rather than faith, that would set in motion a monumental historical change.
Traditional ideas that had been accepted for centuries were replaced with ones that could be demonstrated with evidence.
Scientific thinking advanced through the correspondence of leading scholars with one another, even during the religious wars, and by the establishment of a Royal Academy of Science in France and England.
He has a great liking for warfare and weapons of war, and whenever we were with him, he was adjusting his words, testing hismuskets, etc.
No one should think that the arts of painting, engraving, or sculpture are completely forbidden by this Commandment.
The Council of Trent: Catechism for Parish Priests, 1566 (A) describes one way in which the passage reflects a response to the Protestant Reformation.
Historians try to describe the past fairly, but their nationality, ethnicity, gender, and other characteristics can affect their values.
In the 16th century, King Henry IV wrote about how he and other monarchs of his time were willing to compromise, ruling with practicality rather than theology.
The Thirty Years' War involved the Netherlands, Sweden, France, and Spain.
The Ottoman Empire besieged the city of Esztergom in 1543 in order to take control of Hungary.
Taxes and other obligations were placed on the peasants and villages by the armies that needed to maintain control.
A deep religious schism divided Muslims and Hindus in Mughal India, just as a schism divided Sunni Ottomans and Shi'a Safavids set the stage for conflict between the present-day countries of Iraq and Iran.
Large cannons and gunpowder weapons were used in support of cavalry and infantry units.
The fierceness of the Aztec and Incan warriors allowed them to intimidate and conquer their neighbors.
In some cases, the rulers of land-based empires developed an elite group of soldiers to help solidify their control over their territories.
The Ottoman sultan used enslaved soldiers to counterbalance the power of troops who were more loyal to their tribe than to the shah.
The Janissaries were taken from Christian areas of the Ottoman Empire, while the Ghulams came from the Georgian, Armenian, or Circassian populations.
The system of taking people as part of a "blood" tax was not limited to the Ottoman Empire.
As part of the tribute offered by conquered states, the Aztecs required enslaved people or prisoners.
Control over resources and trade routes in present-day Afghanistan was the core of the war between these two land-based empires.
Land-based empires had to establish an organized and centralized bureaucracy to control a large area.
Revenue collection was needed to support the bureaucracy and military of the land-based empires of this period.
The Ottoman sultans appointed "tax farmers" to pay an annual fixed sum of money for an area to the central government and then recover the outlay by collecting money or salable goods from the residents of the area.
The main source of revenue that supported the Aztec noble class and military came from yearly offerings from the surrounding areas.
It was difficult to rule over populations that included many ethnicities, religions, and tribal ties in land-based empires.
Conversion to Islam of Songhai rulers and noble class provides a religious and legal structure to the empire.
The effects of transoceanic connections on the Eastern and Western Hemispheres can be compared.
The methods empires used to increase their societal and cultural influence can be found in one to three paragraphs.
Historians give various reasons for their decline, but most fall into one of three categories: ineffectiveness, intolerance of minorities, and failure to modernize.
After the time of Suleiman, leaders did not themselves lead soldiers in battle, and military discipline declined just as efficiency and technology began to lag behind Western Europe.
Evaluate the extent to which historical evidence supports one of the perspectives on the rise and decline of the Gunpowder Empires.
The first stage in writing a long essay is to carefully read and analyze the question so you know what the framework is for your response.
The thinking skill of analyzing historical developments and processes can be used for a deeper analysis of the question.
To understand the basic requirements of the task, complete a Key Terms and Framework chart.
Evaluate the extent to which the various belief systems showed continuity or change over time during the period from 1450 to 1750.
New methods of governing were developed by rulers of empires in Africa and Eurasia.
Evaluate the extent to which various land based empires in southern and southwestern Asia developed in similar ways from 1450 to 1750.
Evaluate the extent to which land based empires in Russia and China developed in the same way from 1450 to 1750.
You should respond to the prompt with a historically defensible thesis or claim that establishes a line of reasoning.
Historical reasoning can be used to frame or structure an argument that addresses the prompt.
Use the documents and your knowledge of world history to evaluate the extent to which Peter the Great modernized Russia and made it a major European power.
You should respond to the prompt with a historically defensible thesis or claim that establishes a line of reasoning.
An argument about the prompt should include at least one additional piece of specific historical evidence.
Explain how or why the document's point of view, purpose, historical situation, and/or audience is relevant to an argument.
Since our accession to the throne we have tended to govern this realm in a way that all of our subjects should be prosperous.
We have always tried to maintain internal order, to defend the state against invasion, and to improve and to extend trade.
We have given orders, made dispositions, and founded institutions that are indispensable for increasing our trade with foreigners.
To improve our military forces, which are the protection of our State, so that our troops may consist of well-drilled men, has been done.
To obtain greater improvement in this respect, and to encourage foreigners who are able to assist us in this way, as well as artisans profitable to the State, to come in numbers to our country, we have issued this manifesto.
The wives of the dragoons, the soldiers, and the streltsy will wear Western dresses, hats, jackets, and underwear.
He is trying to establish and develop manufacturing plants and factories in the Russian Empire that are similar to those found in other states.
Everyone, without distinction of rank or condition, is given permission to open factories by his Imperial Majesty.
Until that time, the Russians had always worn long beards, which they cherished and preserved with much care, allowing them to hang down on their bosoms, without even cutting the moustache.
The tsar ordered that if you wanted to keep your beard, you had to pay a tax of one hundred rubles a year.
The Russians regarded the tax as an enormous sin on the part of the tsar, and so officials were stationed at the gates of the towns to collect it.
The publication of many pamphlets in Moscow, where the tsar was regarded as a tyrant and a pagan, was due to these insinuations, which came from the priests.
The first global trade networks were formed after Christopher Columbus' voyage that connected the Eastern and Western hemispheres.
The Portuguese and Spanish were the first European states to seek a transoceanic route to Asia.
Plantations were developed in the Americas to sell sugar and other crops in the global market.
The transfer of crops, animals, and disease between the Eastern and Western hemispheres altered life everywhere.
Within the context of increasing European influence, established states in Afro-Eurasia continued to flourish.
The Dutch East India Great visited Western to strengthen its conquest of the Company, a joint-stock Europe to study its Aztec Empire.
Explain the economic causes and effects of maritime exploration in Europe.
Europeans were allowed to travel long distances on the ocean with various inventions.
Alexander Neckham said that the magnetic compass helped steer a ship in the right direction.
The astrolabe, improved by Muslim navigators in the 12th century, allowed sailors to find out how far north or south they were from the equator.
In the early 17th century, religious minorities were looking for a place to live where people were tolerant of their dissent.
All of these groups, as well as those just longing for adventure and glory, were eager to settle in new areas.
People who left their homelands in search of work, food, land, tolerance, and adventure were part of a global shift.
Transoceanic Travel and Trade Europe was never completely isolated from East and South Asia.
Silk, spices, and tea were brought to the Mediterranean by way of the Red Sea.
Land routes from China to Baghdad, Constantinople and Rome have been known to Islamic traders for a long time.
In the 16th century, more and more Europeans became active in the Indian Ocean, with hopes of finding wealth and new converts as their twin motives.
Europeans conducted most of their business in Southeast Asia with women, who used to handle markets and money-changing services in those cultures.
Western European countries such as Portugal, Spain, and England were developing naval technology.
The knowledge was combined with new ideas developed by Islamic and Asian sailors and scholars because of the cross cultural interactions resulting from trade networks.
Portuguese ruler Prince Henry the Navigator was the leading European figure.
Portugal explored African coastal communities and kingdoms before other European powers.
Sailors were able to predict when the depth of water near a shore would decrease, exposing dangerous rocks.
Sailing with greater confidence was possible as people kept accurate records of the winds.
Before the introduction of the compass, ships relied on these maps to guide them, using the skies to determine their location.
Babylonian and Mesopotamian astronomer created star charts as early as the 2nd century B.C.E.
The astrolabe, improved by Muslim navigators in the 12th century, allowed sailors to determine how far north or south they were from the equator.
It works with either magnets or a gyro, which is a wheel or disk mounted to spin rapidly around an axis.
The wind on either side of the ship allowed the lateen to travel in different directions.
The lateen allowed sailors to travel into large bodies of water for the first time, thus expanding trade routes.
A rapid expansion of exploration and global trade was the result of combining navigation techniques invented in Europe with those from other areas of the world.
The growth of the Abbasid Empire, centered in Baghdad, and the activities of Muslim merchants led to the rapid spread of Islam in North Africa.
Peter the Great visited Western Europe in 1697 to observe military and naval technology.
He hired technicians from Germany and other countries to help build Russia's military and naval power.
Some of the innovations that made ocean travel easier can be seen in this model of a caravel.
Improvements in gunpowder weaponry helped early modern Europeans, Turks, Mughals, and Chinese.
Explain one way in which the passage from Lockard reflects technological developments that influenced social structures in the period 1450-1750.
To understand context, you need to identify the era of the expansion of trade and empires.
In this case, you might describe the context as one of ambitious rulers eager to stake out territory for both trade and political control, centralizing political states, religious differences so strong that they led to warfare, and an interest in humanism and the natural world.
If you are trying to contextualize humanism, you should focus on the context of philosophy and ideas rather than expanding trade.
From 1450 to 1750, cross-cultural interactions spread technology and helped facilitate changes in trade and travel.
Italian cities with ports on the Mediterranean had a monopoly on European trade with Asia thanks to improved navigation techniques.
The Italians were able to control the prices of Asian imports to Europe by driving Spain and Portugal into the search for new routes to Asia.
In the era of empire-building, European states wanted to expand their authority and control of resources.
Efforts to expand before another power can claim a territory are caused by rivalries among European states.
Expansion of Portugal's trade in the Indian Ocean and with points farther east was aided by the Portuguese ports in India.
In the 16th century, the ruthless Portuguese admiral Afonso de Albuquerque won a battle with Arab traders and set up a factory in Indonesia.
The governor of Portuguese India sent strings of Indians' ears home to Portugal as evidence of his conquests.
After Zheng He's final voyage in the 1430s, China's exploration of the outside world came to an end.
The traders were followed by Roman Catholic missionaries who worked to convert the Chinese people.
Jesuit missionaries in Macau, such as Matteo Ricci, impressed the Chinese with their learning.
The Portuguese built forts from Hormuz on the Persian Gulf to the western Indian state of Maharashtra to ensure control of trade.
The Portuguese were challenged by Dutch and English rivals in East Asia by the 17th century.
Columbus and other European explorers wanted to find gold, silver, and other valuable resources in Asia.
Europeans exchanged silver for luxury goods such as silk and spices at the Manila trading post.
A route through or around North America would lead to East Asia and the trade in spices and luxury goods.
La Salle, a French trader, explored the Great Lakes and followed the Mississippi River south to the Gulf of Mexico in the 1680s.
Unlike the English who colonized the East Coast of the United States, the French rarely settled permanently.
With that victory, England became a major naval power and began competing for lands and resources in the Americas.
The English established a colony in Virginia at the same time the French founded Quebec.
It could be only half the distance of a route that went around South America, though it would travel through a chilly region.
Dutch merchants bought furs from trappers who lived and worked in the forest lands.
When the Portuguese go from Macao, the most southern port city in China, to Japan, they carry a lot of white silk, gold, perfume, and porcelain.
More than 600,000 coins' worth of Japanese silver is brought back by a great ship every year.
European voyages of discovery were aided by one technological improvement in the period c. 1250-c. 1750 that originated outside of Europe.
Historians of exploration might focus on the details of each effort to find a northwest passage in a specialized study.
As a global economy began to develop, economic historians could focus on the expansion of trade networks.
Explain the causes and effects of the state sponsored expansion of maritime exploration.
Initial contact and the subsequent conquest and colonization of the Americas proved disastrous for the native peoples according to the excerpt from the poem above.
Overpowered by superior weapons and decimated by disease, many native populations were forced to submit to new rulers and a new religion.
New ways of life developed out of the interaction of three broad traditions of culture after European conquest damaged native societies.
The peoples of the Western and Eastern Hemispheres were almost completely isolated until Columbus arrived.
The indigenous people of the Americas were not exposed to the germs and diseases brought by Europeans.
European horses, gunpowder, and metal weapons helped to conquer indigenous Americans, but disease was the main cause of deaths.
The indigenous people of Mexico didn't know anything about pigs or cows until Europeans introduced them.
The arrival of the horse allowed Indians to hunt buffalo on horseback so efficiently that they had a surplus of food.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, population growth in Europe was caused by the introduction of these vegetable crops.
Tobacco and cacao were sold to consumers in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East.
Slave traders kidnapped millions of Africans from their homelands, but populations grew in Africa during the 16th and 17th centuries.
While Spain and Spanish America made money from silver, the Portuguese empire focused on agriculture.
Many people who were forced to work in the sugar fields escaped to the Brazilian jungle.
The Portuguese began to import people from Africa, especially from the Kongo Kingdom and cities on the Swahili coast.
Poor nutrition, lack of adequate shelter, and tropical heat were some of the causes of death for slaves.
Plantation owners lost up to 10% of their labor force due to the horrible working conditions of the engenhos.
The Caribbean islands had a larger concentration of enslaved Africans than did North America.
There are few examples of creole languages in the United States, which has a smaller percentage of Africans than the total population.
In places where enslaved people once made up 75 percent of the population, the Gullah language of coastal South Carolina and Georgia is an exception.
African slaves in America used their musical traditions as a means of survival.
They were able to endure long workdays and communicate with other Africans by singing tunes from home.
The banjo is very similar to the stringed instruments found in West Africa.
The town has 400 Spanish residents, as well as many temporary shops of dealers in merchandise and groceries, heads of trading houses, and Transients.
It would be an ecological disaster if American Indian crops did not grow in all of the world.
Crosby's argument about the interactions that occurred between the Americas and Europe/Africa in the 14th century is described in this article.
On the previous page, you can read the second passage by Alfred W. Crosby Jr. Then ask the questions.
Explain the causes of the Columbian Exchange and its effects on the Eastern and Western Hemispheres in one to three paragraphs.
New maritime empires and trading posts were established in Asia and Africa by European nations who were driven by political, religious, and economic rivalries.
Newly developed colonial economies in the Americas depended on agriculture, while Asian trade frequently exchanged silver and gold for luxury goods.
The demand for enslaved Africans in the Americas increased due to the growth of the plantation economy.
The European conquest of East and West Africa began in the late 15th century.
He financed expeditions along Africa's Atlantic Coast and around the Cape of Good Hope.
The first trading posts along Africa's coast were set up by Portuguese and European traders.
In exchange for gunpowder and cannons, some local rulers traded enslaved people to the Europeans.
The Kingdom of Dahomey grew stronger because it raided other villages and sold people to European merchants.
Portuguese explorers, traders, and missionaries made inroads into the Kongo and Benin kingdoms in central West Africa.
Most of the commercial centers in the Indian Ocean trade were located in the city-states of East Africa.
Dutch merchants were allowed to live on a small island in Nagasaki harbor.
Private foreign trade was banned, dockyards were destroyed, the size of ships that could be built was limited, and the Great Wall was reconstructed.
The changes were part of a larger pattern of conservatism that was put in place to remove the influence of the Yuan Dynasty that ruled China before them.
The traditional exam system was rejuvenated by the Ming, who emphasized the importance of Confucianism.
The British East India Company began a commercial relationship with the Mughal Empire in the 17th century.
The Seven Years' War saw France and Great Britain compete for power on five continents.
The EIC established forts on the coast that focused on making money through trade.
It was able to increase its political power through treaties with local rulers because of the tensions between Muslims and Hindus in India.
The East India Company moved inland with the help of Indian private forces.
The British set up trading posts in West Africa, which limited the impact of the Asante Empire.
A trade center for goods from many parts of the world can be found at the intersection of multiple points.
If the Inka filled a large room with gold, Pizarro would release Atahualpa.
Brazil was put under Portugal's rule while Spain claimed the rest of the Americas.
The oldest continuous settlement in the United States was established in 1565 in St. Augustine on the east coast of Florida.
Spain wouldn't be able to control all of North America because the French, British, and Dutch made claims there.
As British settlers moved into former Dutch territory in New York, they began to form ties with the powerful Iroquois, who had been in conflict with the French over trade issues for decades.
The Indian Ocean trading networks were disrupted by the increasing influence of Europeans, but the system absorbed the changes and continued its familiar ways of doing business.
Merchants in the Indian Ocean networks paid taxes and fees to the states that controlled the sea lanes and ports.
The market for trade and profit was created by porcelain and silk from China, cloth weavers in western India, agricultural goods from Java, and spices from many places.
Merchants in the Indian Ocean trade networks continued to pay for the right to use certain ports and passageways despite the differences between the traditional trading networks and those controlled by European powers.
Columbus and his crew kidnapped Tainos, indigenous peoples, and took them to Spain, where they were enslaved.
By the end of the 16th century, the cities of Zacatecas, in Mexico, and especially Potosi, in the Andes Mountains, became thriving centers of silver mining.
Villages were forced to send a percentage of their male population to work in the mines for a meager wage.
According to the mercantilist system, a colonizing country can increase its wealth by exporting more than it imports.
Europeans sought labor for their investments in the Americas before Slavery existed in Africa.
In order to establish their positions of wealth and power, individuals showcased their property and enslaved people they owned.
During their travels to the Swahili Coast of East Africa, Arab merchants often bought enslaved people.
The Atlantic slave trade wreaked havoc on African societies.
The enslaved indigenous people who survived escaped bondage because they were more familiar with the territory and had social networks that could protect them.
Landowners didn't think of indigenous captives and European indentured servants as ideal workers.
When African leaders realized that their kingdoms could benefit from the slave trade, they invaded neighboring societies in a quest for enslaved people to return to the coast.
African rulers were willing to hand over individuals from the lower rungs of their own societies, such as prisoners of war, servants, or criminals.
King Afonso of Kongo knew that slave raids were hard to control.
He didn't want Kongo to be depopulated or give up his society's elite to slavery, even though he initially allowed slave trading in his kingdom.
The authority of King Afonso was undermined because his subjects were able to trade enslaved people for European goods.
The so-called House of Slaves on Ile de Goree is located on the coast of Senegal.
Slave traders crammed their captives into the cargo section of a ship, providing them little water, food or even room for movement, from the holding pens.
10 to 15 percent of African captives perished before reaching the Americas during the hundreds of years of the Atlantic slave trade.
The growth of the planation economy and the expansion of slavery in the Americas led to significant changes that affected not only countless individual lives but also broad patterns of history.
The decline in population in African home countries was caused by the exportation of enslaved people.
Slavery resulted in a migration of status, from free person to enslaved, setting up social classes that remain influential in post-slavery countries.
The social and family groupings were determined more by supply and demand than by the bonds of kinship when people were treated as commodities.
People with African roots helped shape and enrich the language and culture of the societies in which they were brought.
While most Africans who were enslaved and transported to the Americas came from west and central Africa, there was a long-running slave trade in the eastern part of the continent.
People from the Indian Ocean region were more likely to work in seaports as laborers and as household servants.
African words, musical styles, and customs can be found in India, as a result of the Indian Ocean slave trade.
The widespread use of slavery was a systematic Spanish adaptation on the north Mexican frontier.
The first reason for keeping slavery on the frontier for generations was provided by the New Laws, which made it illegal in Mexico in 1542.
The fate of Spanish- Indian relations in the North was sealed by the discovery of silver at Zacatecas.
The Dominican friar Bartolome de las Casas wrote about the suffering the Spaniards inflicted on the indigenous people.
To understand how the intended audience can reveal an author's purpose, answer the following questions.
The accounts would have been written by a visitor from a European power that wanted to take over the land and remove the Spanish from it.
In a sentence or two, explain the role of audience and purpose in determining the accuracy of a historical source.
Between 1450 and 1750, the empires of European states were established and what economic and labor systems fueled them.
The rise of this extended global economy was aided by the opening of new ocean trade routes.
The mixing of African, American, and European cultures and peoples was a part of the Atlantic trading system.
Capital changed hands from entrepreneurs to laborers, putting them in a better position to become consumers and even investors, as the above quote suggests.
Despite restrictions by the Church, lending money at high rates of interest became commonplace.
The opening of new ocean trade routes and the development of European overseas colonies were some of the factors that led to the Commercial Revolution.
The profits and risks of exploration and trading ventures were shared by people who invested capital in such companies.
The European middle class had money to invest in businesses in their home countries.
Dutch ships were faster and lighter than their rivals for most of the 17th century, giving them an early trade advantage.
Both fell prey to speculative financial schemes early in the 18th century.
Financial bubbles were based on the sale of shares to investors who were promised a certain return.
After a frenzy of buying that drove up the price of shares, the bubble burst and investors lost huge amounts of money, causing wide damage to the economy.
Africa became the source of new labor due to the Europeans' desire for enslaved workers in the Americas.
A ship might carry European manufactured goods such as firearms to West Africa, and then take enslaved Africans to the Americas, where they would be loaded up with sugar or tobacco.
Caribbean sugar production and rum were used to finance fortunes in France and the Netherlands by the 1700s.
The states continued to fight for control of trade routes in the Indian Ocean.
The Portuguese soundly defeated a combined Muslim and Venetian force in a naval battle in the Arabian Sea in 1509 over controlling trade.
Despite the prohibition of war on another Muslim state, the Songhai Kingdom was captured by Morocco.
Thousands of soldiers, camels, and horses, as well as eight cannons and other firearms, traveled months to reach Songhai.
A new global circulation of goods, wealth, and labor was involved in the trading networks.
Asians were eager to exchange their goods for silver from the Spanish colonies in the Americas.
The increasing output of peasant and artisan labor--wool and linen from Western Europe, cotton from India, and silk from China--exchanged hands in port cities with global connections.
Kongo, a West African kingdom, was weakened by the Atlantic slave trade.
The slave trade set the stage for European conquest in the late 19th century.
Most Africans were kidnapped or sold during the slave trade, which affected the peoples and civilizations of West Africa.
Africa was weakened by the Atlantic trading system, but it also spurred population growth through an improved diet.
The Romans, Muslims, and Mongols all grappled with how to deal with their people's traditions and cultures.
The social structures and cultural traditions of the indigenous Americans were wiped out by the Spanish and Portuguese empires in a century.
Slow transportation and communication networks between Europe and the Americas made it difficult for the Spanish crown to control New Spain.
The Spanish throne didn't pay much attention to colonial affairs in the Western Hemisphere.
At the hands of conquerors, the indigenous peoples of the Americas lost a lot of their culture and history.
Historians view this period differently due to the scarcity of firsthand accounts from indigenous peoples.
Most of the information about the Aztec comes from documents written by Spanish conquistadores and priests after the conquest.
The authors' biases and lack of familiarity with Nahuatl limit the value of these sources.
The Florentine Codex, one of the most widely cited sources about Aztec life before conquest, was compiled by a Spanish priest in 1545.
Spanish and Portuguese conquerors brought their own languages and religions to the Americas.
The reach of existing religions was extended by the increase and intensity of newly established global connections.
The African peoples of Dahomey, Kongo, and Yoruba were enslaved and living in Saint-Domingue, which is now Haiti.
The first significant presence of Islam in the Americas was created by the enslaved Africans who sailed with Columbus.
The Dominicans, Jesuits, and Franciscans sent missionaries to Latin America to convert people to Christianity.
Sufism, with its focus on personal salvation, helped spread Islam and may have influenced Sikhism.
Conflicts between the Ottoman and Safavid empires were worsened by the split between Sunni and Shi'a Muslims.
The settlement of North America was driven by the split between Catholicism and Protestantism, as people sought freedom to worship as they saw fit.
Vodun is a term used in Haiti and the Haitian diaspora to describe the influx of people from Africa during the African slave trade.
In addition to combining the spirits of many different African and Indian nations, pieces of Roman Catholic liturgy have been incorporated to replace lost prayers or elements; in addition images of Catholic saints are used to represent various spirits.
While most of the primary sources describing the conquest of Central and South America were written by Spaniards, there were a few manuscripts, such as the Florentine Codex and Kingsborogh Codex, named for the region in Mexico where it was produced.
Many social, political, and economic groups resisted state expansion through a variety of challenges.
The Portuguese were pushed out of South Asia by the Dutch and English by the 17th century.
Since the 15th century, the Portuguese have carried out slave raids in Africa to build a colony.
By the 14th century, conditions for serfs in Western Europe had improved, but not in Russia.
nobles imposed harsh conditions on serfs as demand for grain increased.
The Russian princes collected tribute and taxes from peasants in order to support the government's army.
Russian serfs were chained to the lands where they were born and ensured their service to their landlords, who could buy and sell them.
Many were runaway serfs who lived in small groups and were influenced by the nomadic descendants of the Mongols.
The central, autocratic government of the tsars sometimes clashed with the fierce Cossack warriors.
These fiercely independent warriors could also be hired as mercenaries to defend "Mother Russia" against Swedish, Tartar, and Ottoman forces.
Russia's expansion to the Ural Mountains and further east into Siberia was aided by the Cossacks.
Pugachev lied about being Catherine's murdered husband, Peter III, gathering a following of discontented peasants, people from different ethnic groups, and fellow Cossacks.
About 400 Spaniards were killed by the indigenous people and the rest were driven out of the area.
Slave revolts were common in the Americas where enslaved Africans outnumbered free Europeans.
In this rebellion, enslaved Africans and white indentured servants demanded their freedom from the governor.
The English throne remained in Protestant hands after William and Mary were born.
Although the revolution took place without much violence, religious tensions continued in England and throughout the world.
The small Christian clan stranded in a tiny corner of the earth, surrounded by half-savage Mohammedan tribes and by soldiers, acknowledges none but Cossacks as human beings, and despises everybody else.
All signs of Christianity and Spanish material culture were destroyed by Popay and the other leaders.
Everyone was to bathe in a ritual which washed away any trace of baptism, and Christian marriages were invalidated until reconfirmed by native tradition.
Iron tools, sheep, cattle, and fruit trees were some of the items that had been introduced by the Spanish.
The last page of topic 3.1 outlines four features of the historical concept of empire.
Explain in a sentence or two how the internal or external challenges to state power relate to each bullet point.
Add the rebellions, revolts, and wars that arose as challenges to state power to the topic.
Jews fleeing discrimination in Europe found a safe haven in the Ottoman Empire.
Powerful groups include royalty, nobility, landowners, scholars, and soldiers.
There was tension between the military elite and the rulers of the Islamic empires of Turkey, Iran and India.
When she was a young girl, the raiders stole her from her home in Eastern Europe and sold her into slavery in the Ottoman Empire.
She entered the harem of Suleiman the Magnificent, the sultan of the empire, after converting to Islam.
The Barbary Coast was captured for Muslims because they couldn't hold top positions in the empire.
He gave grants of land and money to Hindus and Muslims and supported Sikhism.
The Manchu lived in Eastern Europe and was sold into slavery in the Ottoman Empire.
She was forced to convert to Islam due to the fact that they were less tolerant than the leaders of the empire.
The rise of Roxelana showed that the Qing Dynasty was the legitimate rulers of China.
The policy was a test of loyalty for the Manchu, but it was also a reminder of how the authority challenged traditional Confucian values.
In South and East Asia, European states had a social hierarchy.
The middle class and radical religious sects were two growing segments of the social order.
Nobles had to contend with royalty, the middle class of merchants and skilled workers, and the common people.
The use of gunpowder, cannons, and other technological advances allowed rulers to destroy nobles' fortresses and seize their lands.
The arrival of Europeans, the importation of African slave labor, and the outbreak of disease changed the social structures of the Americas.
The combination of European settlers, imported Africans, and the conquered indigenous populations led to the development of a new social hierarchy based on race and ancestry.
In the Americas and all European colonies, skin color became a signifier of power and status.
Social status in the Spanish and Portuguese empires in the Western Hemisphere was defined by race and ethnic background.
Even though they could not always afford it, people in the bottom layers of the hierarchy had to pay higher taxes.
"Learned men of various kinds and from every country, as well as adherents of many different religions and creeds, assembled at his court and were admitted to converse with him."
Night and day, people did nothing but inquire and investigate and His Majesty collected opinions of every one, especially of those who were not Mohammedans.
The governments believe that the racial caste system of colonial times has vanished.
This firmly held conviction is not shared by academics and ordinary citizens who have noticed the differences between Latin American societies.
This system is embedded in the Latin societies because it has survived 185 years of social, economic, and political advances.
Explain the authors' argument about the racial caste system in the passage.
Consider the claim that King Ferdinand gave the Jews three months to prepare for their departure from Spain in 1492.
The account written by an Italian Jew is in the Internet Jewish History Source Book.
Most of the world was integrated into a system of economic, political, and cultural connections by the 17th century.
The Indian Ocean trading network was created by Western European maritime powers.
As a result of these interactions, religions and other cultural practices continued to spread, but they were also transformed as new or syncretic forms developed.
New economic systems sought to exploit natural resources and generate wealth for Western European nations.
Western European states wanted to find a sea route to Asia.
The integration of the Western Hemisphere into the global trading network was the result of European transoceanic voyages.
The Portuguese led the way in maritime trading, followed by the Dutch and the English.
Europeans established trading ports and cities along the coast of Africa and the Indian Ocean.
Europeans dominated global trade at the expense of Arab, Indian, and Chinese merchants.
Large deposits of silver in Spain's colonies helped integrate Europeans into the global economy.
The increasing volume of trade between Asia and Europe was helped by shipments of silver from the Americas.
As the wealth that could be amassed was considerable, European rulers saw the benefits of encouraging the expansion of trade.
European monarchs created mercantilist economic policies that would provide the ruler with a steady stream of income in order to ensure they participated in wealth accumulation from trade.
mercantilism was an important goal of European monarchs, but eventually capitalism became the main economic system in the new global economy.
The risks and rewards of global trading can be shared by investors who formed joint-stock companies.
Huge amounts of gold and silver flowing into Spain and China from the Americas produced negative economic effects.
Regional markets in Europe, Africa, and Asia continued to prosper because of the activities of European merchants.
Merchants and governments used their rising profits and revenue to sponsor artists and authors.
Cash crops produced by these African men included sugar, cotton, and tobacco.
The chattel slavery of the Atlantic slave trade was one of the coerced labor systems developed in the Americas.
Many European settlers first arrived in the Americas as indentured servants, who were contracted to work for a period of time before they were free to pursue other jobs or occupations.
Spanish conquistadors created a huge empire in the Americas after Christopher Columbus.
In 1552, the Dominican friar Bartolome de Las Casas described how Spanish officials mistreated native populations.
Acceptance of the Black Legend was common in the United States, where Protestants dominated the writing of history in the 19th century.
Hanke made the Spanish look better than they were by exaggerating the strength of Las Casas and the reformers.
Historians taking a more global approach to history have compared colonial empires more systematically.
Evaluate the amount of historical evidence that supports one of the perspectives on Spanish colonization.
The next step in writing a long essay is to gather and organize your evidence after analyzing the task and developing questions.
Write down everything you know about China's role in global trade networks.
With the Silk Roads and Indian Ocean trade networks pouring gold and silver into China for their goods, the Chinese felt wealthy and in no need of foreign commodities.
Adding notes to the above list will help you remember more about China's involvement in global trade networks between 1450 and 1750.
Trans-Atlantic trade brought new inventions and ideas to societies in the Eastern and Western hemispheres.
An argument can be made about the extent to which cross-cultural interactions resulted in the spread of technology and the impact it had on trade and travel.
Europeans' transoceanic explorations were shaped by strong central governments, mercantilism, and trading enslaved people.
From 1450 to 1750, the Columbian Exchange brought prosperity to Europe, but also misery to the Americas and Africa.
Evaluate the extent to which the systems of slavery in that era showed changes over time.
Evaluate the effect on societies of various belief systems during that time period with the help of an argument.
You should respond to the prompt with a historically defensible thesis or claim that establishes a line of reasoning.
Historical reasoning can be used to frame or structure an argument that addresses the prompt.
You should respond to the prompt with a historically defensible thesis or claim that establishes a line of reasoning.
An argument about the prompt should include at least one piece of specific historical evidence that is relevant to it.
Explain how or why the document's point of view, purpose, historical situation, and/or audience is relevant to an argument.
Farmers in all provinces are not allowed to own swords, spears, firearms, or other types of weapons.
Those who perpetrate improper acts against samurai who receive a grant of land must be brought to trial.
Hideyoshi's government requires the heads of the provinces, samurai who receive a grant of land, and deputies to submit their weapons to them.
This compassionate concern for the well-being of the farms is the reason for the issuance of this edict, and it is the foundation for the peace and security of the country and the joy and happiness of all the people.
Privateers were sea captains who were given permission by the English government to raid Spanish ports and ships.
Through our friends and neighbors, I was told that you have had the audacity to commit hostilities in the territories and cities because of your adherence to the king of Spain.
If you will surrender with humility, I will grant you clemency and allow you to return to your own country.
Should you resist these honorable conditions, I will send my troops to sail for Maracaibo with orders to destroy you and put every man to the sword.
I want to be allowed to avenge the unrighteous acts you have committed against the Spanish nation in America.
It was drafted by two religious leaders in the German city of Memmegen between February 27 and March 1, 1525.
It has been a custom for men to hold us as their own property, which is consistent with the idea that we should be free.
The cry of the people would never have met with princes so willing to support their cause, nor the new doctrines have found such numerous, brave, and persevering, if not for private advantages and state interests being closely connected with it.
They were not lured by the hope of plunder, but by the fact that they were fighting for the truth and sacrificing their lives for their princes.
Czar Alexei I's government implemented a universal tax on salt, causing violent riots by artisans and serfs.
The borders of Mesopotamia and the bank of the Euphrates were filled with soldiers who were taken from the Imperial guard.
Closer integration was fostered by new technology, from machinery for spinning thread to locomotives.
Dramatic changes in international relations, politics, and demography were set in motion by the Industrial Revolution.
Industrializing countries protected the access of their businesses to resources for manufacturing and to markets for selling goods by establishing control over overseas lands as global trade increased.
In the period from 1750 to 1900, the development of economic systems, ideologies, and institutions contributed to change.
I want to explain the causes and effects of calls for changes in industrial societies.
Intellectuals in the 17th and 18th centuries such as Descartes began to emphasize reason over tradition and individualism as empires expanded.
The ideals of this movement, such as individualism, freedom, and self-determination, challenged the roles of monarchs and church leaders and planted the seeds of revolution in the United States, France, and around the world.
Enlightenment thought that the new ideas of the Scientific Revolution and the humanism of the Renaissance were optimistic.
Many writers believed that applying reason to natural laws would lead to progress.
revolutions that often had two aims were independence from imperial powers and constitutional representation, because of the clash between new ideas and old political structures.
Europe's multiethnic empires were threatened by the idea that people who share a culture should live in an independent nation state.
Instead of relying on reasoning about principles provided by tradition or religion, Bacon based his conclusions on his observation of natural data.
They gave up some rights to a strong central government in exchange for law and order.
Locke argued that the social contract implied the right of citizens to revolt against unjust government.
Locke believed that people had natural rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of property.
After being exiled for three years due to a conflict with a member of the French aristocracy, Voltaire developed an appreciation for the monarchy and civil rights in England.
He brought these ideas back to France, where he was campaigning for religious liberty and judicial reform.
Rousseau inspired many revolutionaries in the late 18th century because he believed that society could improve.
Thomas Hobbes wanted new constitutions and John Locke supported religious toleration.
Many Christians called for greater private charity and some wanted more government regulations.
Like other utopian socialists, Fourier believed that a fundamental principle of utopia was harmonious living in communities rather than the class struggle that was basic to the thinking of Karl Marx.
Small societies governed by the principles of utopian socialism were established in New Lanark, Scotland, and New Harmony, Indiana.
H. G. Wells, Virginia Woolf, and George Bernard Shaw were prominent writers.
Changing population patterns meant that new industrial cities would have equal representation in Parliament.
She argued that universal education would allow women to support themselves instead of relying on men.
They wanted women to have the right to vote and hold office, to have property and manage their own incomes, and to be the legal guardians of their children.
The end of slavery and the extension of rights and equality to enslaved people are the subject of reform movements.
The slave system depended on a steady supply of new enslaved people in order to function.
Within 30 years of the end of the slave trade, most parts of the Americas abolished slavery.
The largest single emancipation of people in bondage in human history took place in Russia.
Jews want to reestablish an independent homeland where their ancestors lived in the Middle East.
Alfred Dreyfus, a military officer who was Jewish, was convicted of treason against the French government in 1894.
Dreyfus was pardoned after serving time in prison, but the case showed how much anti-Semitism there was in France.
The sexes will fall into their proper places if the common law of gravity is followed.
The Enlightenment was a time of lively debate and argument centered on the human capacity to reason.
Knowing how to describe the structure of an argument and the types of reasoning can help you evaluate the strength of its conclusions.
The main argument for the rights of women is that if she is not educated, she will stop the progress of knowledge.
In one to three paragraphs, explain how the Enlightenment shaped the ideological and intellectual thinking that affected reform and revolution after 1750.
The French thinker Joseph de Maistre was a conservative who went against the tide of Enlightenment thinking.
Revolutions were bloody, disruptive, and unlikely to yield positive results according to conservative thinkers such as Burke and Maistre.
The desire of the common people for constitutional government and democratic practices erupted in revolutions throughout the 19th century as conservatives tried to quell revolutionary change.
Many nations got a new form of government that responded to the new wave of thinking with its key ideals: progress, reason, and natural law.
The ideals that inspired the American Revolution were derived from European Enlightenment philosophy.
The phrase "unalienable rights" was picked up by Thomas Jefferson in the document.
Britain's long-time enemy, France, aided the colonists in their victory in the war that followed.
English control over the affairs of New Zealand's indigenous peoples increased as a result of colonization by the British.
The commoners, who made up 97 percent of French society, broke away to form the National Assembly because of inequality in voting.
In the early days of the French Revolution, moderates such as Marquis de Lafayette were trying to establish a constitutional monarchy.
The establishment of the First French Republic was inspired by the unhappiness of the Jacobins and the refusal of the nobility to accept the limited monarchy.
The French, Spanish, and British were defeated by his army of enslaved Africans and Maroons.
After taking control of the territory that would become the independent country of Haiti, L'Ouverture produced a constitution that granted equality and citizenship to all residents.
He set on the road to independence from France after cementing the abolition of slavery in Haiti.
The Haitian and French revolutions grew out of the Enlightenment's insistence that men had natural rights as citizens, and that legal restrictions were limiting the freedom of people by forcing them into various estates.
The creoles were educated and aware of the ideas behind the revolutions in North America and France.
There were many reasons for discontent in the colonies, each of which encouraged some people to desire independence from Spain.
They didn't like that Spain gave important government jobs in the colonies to peninsulares.
The creoles refused to support mestizos, indigenous people, and mulattos because of fear.
The result of a slave uprising in Haiti as well as the excesses of the French Revolution were seen by the creoles.
After defeating the Spanish in Latin America, his forces formed a large area called Gran Colombia.
He wanted it to be like the United States in that it was based on Enlightenment ideals.
The men were involved in 288 World History Moder: AP(r) EDITION national politics to make or break governments.
Sometimes the caudillos defended the interests of the regional elites and sometimes of the indigenous population and the peasants, but in general they ignored representative forms of government and the rule of law.
Although the constitutions of the newly independent countries in Latin America legally ended slavery and some social distinctions, governments were often conservative.
Before the wars of colonial independence, the creoles formed a powerful and conservative upper class.
Puerto Rico and Cuba were part of the last colonial holdings in the Caribbean.
Rodriguez de Tio became famous for her eloquent critique of Spain's rule over Puerto Rico during an era of little educational opportunity for women.
She earned her exile from Cuba to New York after she wrote and worked for Cuban independence.
The Filipino students embraced the atmosphere of nationalist fervor and republicanism that existed in Europe in the 19th century.
The most prominent of these young people was Jose Rizal, who contributed to magazines, pamphlets, and other publications advocating for greater autonomy for the Philippines.
The arrest and execution of Rizal shocked Filipinos and helped spur the first nationalist movement with the organization and strength to truly challenge Spanish rule.
People created an identity under a single government when nationalism spread beyond Europe.
People had a common bond with others who spoke their language, shared their history and followed their customs.
Efforts to unite people who shared a culture into one political state were driven by the unifying force of nationalism.
Napoleon III of France was maneuvered into a war with Austria in 1858 to weaken Austrian influence on the Italian Peninsula.
After winning two important battles, Napoleon III backed out of the war because he didn't want his Papal States to be controlled by a central Italian government.
It was too late to stop the revolutionary fervor and soon several areas voted by popular referendum to join Piedmont.
The opposition to the French occupation of German states strengthened the nationalist movements in Germany.
Prussia and Austria experienced revolutions after the Congress of Vienna settled the Napoleonic Wars.
Extreme nationalism would lead to World War I, but balance of power would be achieved briefly through these alliances.
The failed attempt to conquer Vienna in 1683 signaled the beginning of successful efforts by Austria and Russia to roll back Ottoman dominance in the Balkans.
Increased contact with Western European ideas and powers led to the development of Balkan nationalism.
Increased contact with Western ideas meant exposure to Enlightenment principles in Greece, which had been under Ottoman control for more than 350 years.
Exposure to the reverence with which Greece and its ancient culture were viewed across Europe meant it.
The waning of Ottoman control led to greater freedom and an influx of new ideas.
Language, folk traditions, shared history, and religion were some of the cultural markers that people began to rally around.
Officials wanted to minimize the ethnic, linguistic, and religious differences across the empire.
Taking control of local schools and mandating a standard curriculum was part of the drive.
This attempt to create a more unified state served to highlight and intensify the subject people's feelings of difference and promote their desire for independence.
Europe has agreed to use the same currency, to allow people to travel freely across borders, and to coordinate public policies.
Representative Houses have been dissolved multiple times for opposing his invasions on the rights of the people.
He destroyed the lives of our people by plundering our seas, ravaged our Coasts, and burnt our towns.
One of the most enduring images of the Industrial Revolution is the rigid structure of early factory work described by Adam Smith.
Increased agricultural productivity, greater individual accumulation of capital, and the rise of maritime trading empires were some of theNetworkExposures.
As the Industrial Revolution spread from Great Britain to Europe and North America, it changed society, increasing world population, shifting people from farm to city, and expanding the production and consumption of goods.
The introduction of the potato from South America increased calories in people's diet.
Infant mortality rates declined and people lived longer because of improved medical care.
Most British families lived in rural areas during the early 18th century, growing most of their food and making most of their clothes.
After the commercial revolution and the establishment of maritime empires, Indian cotton became available in Britain and was in high demand.
Home spinning was hard work and pay was low, but cottage industries gave women some independence.
The development of technologies and machinery that turned out cloth in more efficient ways was spurred by investors.
Factory owners don't have to rely on skilled laborers to craft every component of a product.