1.2 The Process of Science

The application of science to answer questions related to the law is called forensic science.

Biologists can be forensic scientists.
trace material associated with crimes is examined by forensic scientists, who provide scientific evidence for use in courts.
Popular television shows that feature forensic scientists on the job may be the reason for the increased interest in forensic science.
The types of forensic work that can be done have been updated by the development of new techniques.
Crimes against people such as murder, rape, and assault are what their job activities are related to.
Their work involves analyzing samples such as hair, blood, and other body fluids and also processing DNA found in many different environments and materials.
Other biological evidence, such as insect parts or pollen grains, can also be analyzed by forensic scientists.
Students who want to pursue careers in forensic science will need to take chemistry and biology courses as well as some intensive math courses.

Some of the oldest life forms on the planet can be seen through a light microscope.

The stromatolites along the shores of Lake Thetis in Western Australia are ancient structures formed by the layers of cyanobacteria in shallow waters.

Like geology, physics, and chemistry, biology gathers knowledge about the natural world.

The study of life is called biology.
The discoveries of biology are made by a community of researchers who work together using agreed-on methods.
Like all sciences, biology is a social enterprise.

The methods of science include careful observation, record keeping, logical and mathematical reasoning, experimentation, and submitting conclusions to the scrutiny of others.

A well-designed experiment is often described as elegant or beautiful.
Like politics, science has practical implications and some science is dedicated to practical applications, such as the prevention of disease.
Regardless of the goal, science has transformed human existence and will continue to do so.

The bacterium is visualized using a scanning electron microscope.

Science is a specific way of learning about the world.

The introduction to biology has taken place during this time.

The methods of science cannot be applied to certain areas of knowledge.
These include answering moral, aesthetic, or spiritual questions.
Science can't investigate these areas because they are outside the realm of material phenomena, the phenomena of matter and energy, and can't be observed and measured.

One of the most important aspects of the scientific method is the testing of hypotheses.

A scientific theory is a generally accepted, thoroughly tested and confirmed explanation for a set of observations.
Scientific knowledge is based on scientific theory.
Theories to laws do not represent an increase in certainty about the world.

Hypotheses are the day-to-day material that scientists work with and they are developed within the context of theories.

Laws are concise descriptions of parts of the world that are easy to understand.

Science includes astronomy, biology, computer sciences, geology, logic, physics, chemistry, and mathematics.

A museum of natural sciences might have some of the items listed above.

Astronomy, biology, computer science, geology, logic, physics, chemistry, and mathematics are some of the fields of science.

The natural sciences are astronomy, biology, chemistry, earth science, and physics.
There are some disciplines that build on two sciences.

The development of science is driven by curiosity and inquiry.

Scientists want to understand how the world works.
Two methods of logical thinking are used.

In descriptive science, this type of reasoning is common.

A Biologist makes observations and records them.

The raw data can be supplemented with drawings, pictures, photos, or videos.

The scientist can make conclusions from many observations.
Evaluating a large amount of data involves formulating generalizations from careful observation.
Brain studies can work this way.
People are doing a task and many of their brains are being observed.
The part of the brain that lights up is shown to be the part that controls the response to the task.

The type of logic used in hypothesis-based science iseductive reasoning.

The pattern of thinking moves in the opposite direction when using deductive reasoning.
As long as the general principles are valid, a scientist can predict the specific results that would be valid.
If the climate is getting warmer in a region, the distribution of plants and animals should change.

Many changes that have been found are consistent with a warming climate, and have been compared between distributions in the past and present.

The climate change conclusion is valid if you find the change in distribution.

Both types of logical thinking are related to the two main pathways of scientific study.

Most scientific endeavors combine both approaches, so the boundary between these two forms of study is often blurred.
Observations lead to questions, questions lead to forming a hypothesis, and then the hypothesis is tested.

There is continuous dialogue between descriptive science and hypothesis-based science.

Biologists study the living world by posing questions.

This approach is common to other sciences and is often referred to as the scientific method.
The scientific method was used in the past, but it was first documented by England's Sir Francis Bacon.
The scientific method can be applied to almost anything as a logical problem-solving method.

The scientific method was documented by Sir Francis Bacon.

The scientific process usually begins with an observation that leads to a question.

A simple problem that starts with an observation can be solved using a scientific method.
One Monday morning, a student arrives at class and discovers that the classroom is too warm.
The classroom is too warm is an observation that also describes a problem.

A hypothesis can be tested.

Several hypotheses may be proposed to solve a problem.

Other hypotheses may be proposed because there could be other responses to the question.

Predicting can be made once a hypothesis has been selected.

The format of a prediction is similar to a hypothesis.

It is necessary to test a hypothesis to make sure it is valid.

A hypothesis that depends on what a bear thinks is not testable.

There is no experiment that will show this to be true.

One or more experiments designed to eliminate one or more hypotheses will be conducted to test a hypothesis.
A hypothesis can be disproven, but never proven.
Science does not deal with proof like mathematics does.
If an experiment fails to disprove a hypothesis, we can find support for that explanation, but we can't say that a better explanation will be found down the road.

Each experiment has variables and controls.

In the example that follows, look for the variables and controls.
An experiment might be conducted to test the hypothesis that the growth of algae in freshwater ponds is limited by the amount of phosphate in the water.
Half of the artificial ponds that are filled with water are treated withphosphate each week, while the other half are treated with a salt that is not used by algae.
There are three variables here: the amount of phosphate, the experimental or treatment cases, and the control ponds.
Adding something to the pond is a control against the possibility that it will have an effect.
We have found support for our hypothesis if the treated ponds show less growth of algae.
We reject our hypothesis if they don't.
Rejecting one hypothesis doesn't determine whether or not the other hypotheses can be accepted, it simply eliminates one hypothesis that isn't valid.
The hypotheses that are inconsistent with the data are rejected.

Experiments and careful observation are included in the scientific method.

A new hypothesis can be proposed if the previous one is not supported by data.

The scientific method is used to solve a problem.

Some alternative hypotheses should be proposed if it is not supported.

There is a problem with the electrical outlet.

The coffeemaker won't work if something is wrong with the outlet.

The scientific method is not as rigid as it might appear.

Sometimes an experiment leads to conclusions that favor a change in approach, and sometimes an experiment brings entirely new scientific questions to the puzzle.
Science does not operate in a linear fashion, instead scientists draw inferences and make generalizations as their research proceeds.
Scientific reasoning is not as simple as the method suggests.

The value of different types of science has been debated by the scientific community.

There are two types of science: basic science and applied science.

It isn't focused on developing a product or service of immediate public or commercial value.

The goal of basic science is knowledge for knowledge's sake, but this doesn't mean that in the end it won't result in an application.

The problem is usually defined by the researcher in applied science.

The history of science shows that basic knowledge has resulted in many great applications.

Many scientists think that a basic understanding of science is necessary before an application is developed; therefore, applied science relies on the results generated through basic science.
Some scientists think it's time to move on from basic science and find solutions to real problems.
Both approaches are valid.
It is true that there are problems that need immediate attention, but few solutions would be found without the help of basic science.

An example of how basic and applied science can work together to solve practical problems occurred after the discovery of DNA structure.

The instructions for life are provided by the strands of DNA found in our cells.
New copies of DNA are made before a cell divides.
Scientists have been able to develop laboratory techniques that can identify genetic diseases, find people who were at a crime scene, and determine the father of a child.
It is unlikely that applied science would exist without basic science.

The Human Genome Project is an example of a link between basic and applied research.

Other organisms have also been studied as part of the project.

Basic research was carried out with non-human organisms and later with the human genome.
The data for applied research seeking cures for genetically related diseases became an important end goal.

Researchers working in several different fields of science collaborated on the Human Genome Project for 13 years.

The project was finished in 2003

It is important to note that some discoveries are made by happenstance, that is, by accident or a lucky surprise, and that research efforts in both basic science and applied science are usually carefully planned.

The mold killed thebacteria.
The highly organized world of science can lead to unexpected breakthrough when luck and a curious mind are combined.

Scientists must share their findings for other researchers to expand and build upon their discoveries.

Communication and collaboration between sub disciplines of science is important to the advancement of knowledge in science.
An important aspect of a scientist's work is communicating with peers.
Scientists can share their results at a scientific meeting or conference, but only a small group of people can see them.
Most scientists present their results in peer-reviewed articles.
The qualified colleagues are experts in the same research area who decide if the scientist's work is suitable for publication.
Peer review helps ensure that the research described in a scientific paper is original, significant, logical, and thorough.
Grant proposals are subject to peer review.
Scientists publish their work so other scientists can reproduce their experiments under similar or different conditions.
The results of the experiments have to be in line with the findings of other scientists.

The popular press does not use a peer-review system.

A large number of online openaccess journals, journals with articles available without cost, are now available, many of which use rigorous peer-review systems, but some of which do not.
The results of studies published in these forums are not reliable and should not be used for other scientific work.
One exception is that journals may allow a researcher to cite a personal communication from another researcher.

The science of life is called biology.

All living organisms have several key properties such as order, sensitivity or response to stimuli, reproduction, adaptation, growth and development, regulation, and energy processing.
The living things are organized in a way that includes atoms, molecule, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems.
Populations, communities, ecosystems, and the biosphere are grouped as organs.
The diversity on Earth today is the result of evolution.
A diagram of evolutionary relationships can be used.
There are many branches and sub disciplines in biology.

There are many examples of biology.

The process of science biology studies living organisms and their interactions with one another and their environments.

Science tries to understand the nature of the universe.
Natural sciences are related to the physical world and its phenomena.

A hypothesis is a tentative explanation.

A scientific theory can be used to explain a set of observations or phenomena.
A scientific law is a description of the behavior of an aspect of nature under certain circumstances.
Science uses two types of logical reasoning.
General scientific principles are produced byctive reasoning.
eductive reasoning predicts results by applying general principles.
The scientific method is used throughout the research.
Results are presented in peer-reviewed scientific papers.

Science can be applied or basic.

The main goal of basic science is to expand knowledge without expectation of short term practical application.
Practical problems are the primary goal of applied research.

If it isn't supported, propose some alternative A.

There is something wrong with the electrical C. Organelles.

If something is wrong with the outlet, I have D communities that will not work when plugged into.

The smallest unit of biological structure is the _____.

There is a testable explanation for an event.

Give an example of how applied science has changed over time.