4. Colonial Society

The 18th-century American culture was moving in different directions.

The New-York ture began to form and bind together the colonies from New Hampshire to Georgia.
Immigrants from other European nations together.

Men and women, European, Native American, and African- led distinct lives and created new societies.

Life in the thirteen colonies was shaped by English practices and participation in the larger Atlantic World.

High standards of living for many North American colonists were created by the British Atlantic Transatlantic trade.

The colonial feeling of similarity with British culture was reinforced by the relationship.

In the 1760s, trade relations became strained because of political changes and the demands of warfare.

Improvements in manufacturing, transportation, and the availability of credit made it easier for people to purchase consumer goods.

Instead of making their own things, colonists bought luxury items made by specialized artisans and manufacturers.
The items shifted from luxuries to common goods as the incomes of Americans rose.
Historians call this process the consumer revolution.

The ways in which colonists paid for these goods differed from Britain.

British money was usually not carried with settlers when they first arrived in North America.
Without the Crown's authority to mint coins, the colonists relied on barter and other forms of exchange, including the wampum used by Native American groups in the Northeast.
Commodity money, which varied from place to place, was used to deal with the lack of currency.
Tobacco was standardized as a form of money in Virginia by the legislature.
A system of notes was developed to make transporting commodities easier.
Individuals were able to deposit tobacco in a warehouse and receive a note bearing the value of the deposit that could be traded as money.
In 1690, colonial Massachusetts became the first place in the Western world to issue paper bills to be used as money.

The notes provided a useful medium for exchange, but they were not without their problems.

Currency that worked in Virginia might not be worth anything in Pennsylvania.
Colonists and officials in Britain debated whether paper was a better medium of exchange than gold or silver.
Paper money lost value more quickly than coins.
The Board of Trade restricted the use of paper money in the Currency Acts of 1751 and 1763 due to a number of problems.
Paper money was only one medium of exchange.
Colonists used metal coins.
Barter and the extension of credit were important forces throughout the colonial period.
The lack of standardized money hampered trade between colonies.

Businesses on both sides of the Atlantic advertised their goods and services.

Families of modest means were able to purchase items previously only available to elites with the consistent availability of credit.
Middle-class Americans were able to match many of the trends in clothing, food, and household decor that used to mark the wealthiest classes.

Purchase and display British-made goods.

John Adams visited the home of a successful businessman in Boston and described the furniture that cost a thousand pounds sterling.
A seat is for a prince.
The Turkey Carpets, the painted Hangings, the Marble Table, the rich Beds with crimson Damask Curtains and Counterpins, the beautiful Chimney Clock, and the Spacious Garden are all magnificent.
Many Americans worried about the consequences of rising consumerism.
4 Americans became more likely to find themselves in debt, whether to their local shopkeeper or a prominent London merchant, creating new feelings of dependence.

The thirteen continental colonies were not the only Brit colonies in the Western Hemisphere.

They were less important to the Crown than the sugar- producing islands of the Caribbean.
The British colonies were connected to the continental colonies.
North American colonies sold surplus food and raw materials to the wealthy island colonies because they were dedicated to the profitable crop of sugarcane.
In Barbados, planters nearly deforested the island to make room for sugar plantations.
New England house frames were ordered to compensate for the lack of lumber.
The frames were transported from ships to plantations.
The Caribbean colonies bought cattle and horses from the continental colonies.
The slave trade was the most lucrative exchange.

Both sides benefited from connections between the Caribbean and North America.

The Caribbean colonies were used to satisfy the craving for sugar and other goods by those living on the continent.

The Atlantic World was flooded with sugar in the 1640s.

By the end of the 17th century, Jamaica overtook Barbados in sugar production and exported more sugar than all of the continental colonies.

They wanted sugar to make their tea and food better.

The majority of this material went to Britain and Europe.

The wood was imported from the Caribbean and turned into furniture for those who could afford it.

The purpose of these systems of trade was to enrich Great Britain.

Parliament imposed taxes on trade to make sure profits ended up in Britain.
Consumption and politics were intertwined by these taxes.
Prior to 1763, Britain found that it was difficult to enforce the regulatory laws they had passed.
It was easy for colonists to violate the law and trade with foreign nations.
It was not uncommon to see Dutch, French, or West Indies ships laden with prohibited goods in American ports.

They were often acquitted.

British officials estimated that nearly PS700,000 worth of illegal goods were brought into the American colonies annually.

Parliament levied taxes on sugar, paper, lead, glass, and tea, all of which contributed to the colonists' sense of gentility.

patriots organized nonimportation agreements and reverted to domestic products.
Homespun cloth became a political statement.

The growth of colonial cities was fueled by the consumer revolution.

In colonial America, the crossroads were cities.

Some cities grew organically over time, while others were planned from the beginning.

The haphazard arrangement of medieval cities in Europe was reflected in New York and Boston's street plans.
Civic leaders in other cities like Philadelphia and Charleston calculated the urban plans according to the regular blocks and squares.
Government, civic, and educational buildings were placed in the city streets of Annapolis and Williamsburg.

Boston, Newport, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston were the five largest cities in British North America.

Philadelphia, New York, Boston, and Charleston had large populations of people.
The laboring classes included both slaves and free people, ranging from apprentices to master craftsmen.
The next group were shopkeepers, artisans, and skilled mariners.
The merchant elites were involved in buying, selling, and trading goods, as well as being involved in the city's social and political affairs.
There were slaves in both northern and southern cities.

The majority of the enslaved population lived in rural areas.

Slaves worked in skilled trades in port cities as domestic servants.
Slavery became more significant in the northern colonies between 1725 and 1775 as urban residents sought greater participation in the maritime economy.
The first slave-holding colony in New England was Massachusetts.
The Dutch settlers of New Netherland were the originators of the slave trade in New York.
Philadelphia became an active site of the Atlantic slave trade, and slaves accounted for nearly 8 percent of the city's population.
Slaves were the majority of the laboring population on the eve of the American Revolution.

Slavery, Antislavery, and Atlantic exchange was a transatlantic institution, but it had distinct characteristics in British North America.

Slavery was legal in every North American colony by the 17th century, but local economic imperatives, demographic trends, and cultural practices all contributed to distinct colonial variant of slavery.

Virginia imported its first slaves in 1619.

Virginia planters built larger and larger estates that were guaranteed to remain intact through the use of primogeniture and the entail, a legal procedure that prevented the break up and sale of estates.
The distribution of property guaranteed that the great planters would dominate social and economic life in the area.
The economy was dominated by tobacco.
Most of the slaves in Virginia worked on large estates under the gang system of labor, working from dawn to dusk in groups with close supervision.

The interests of slaveholders were protected by Virginians.

The first comprehensive slave code was passed by the House of Burgesses.
The children of enslaved women would be born slaves, conversion to Christianity would not lead to freedom, and owners could not free their slaves unless they moved them out of the colony.
Slave owners could not be convicted of murder for killing a slave, while black Virginians who hit a white colonist would be severely whipped.
Virginia planters used the law to regulate every aspect of their lives and maximize the profitability of their slaves.

Slavery was central to colonial life in South Carolina and Georgia, but specific local conditions created a different system.

Georgia was founded by a philanthropist who banned slavery from the colony.
Slavery was legal throughout the region by the 17th century.
South Carolina was the only mainland colony with a majority enslaved African population.
Slavery was legalized in the very beginning of the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina.
Slaveholders from the British Caribbean sugar islands brought their brutal slave codes with them when they arrived in Carolina.
Slaves could be beaten, branded, and even castrated.
In 1740 a new law stated that the murder of a slave was not a crime.

South Carolina slaves have more independence in their daily lives because of a number of factors.

Merchants in West Africa were often asked to sell slaves in order to cultivate rice, the staple crop underpinning the early Carolina economy.
One of the most lucrative economies in the colonies was due to the expertise of the slaves from Senegambia.
The swampy conditions of rice plantations fostered diseases.
Many owners were forced to live away from their plantations due to the spread of tropical diseases.
The elites who owned plantations lived in town houses to avoid diseases of the rice fields.
The planters believed that Africans were more suited to labor in tropical environments due to the fact that they had a genetic trait that made them more resistant to Malaria.

Carolina slaves had less oversight than those in the Chesapeake due to the fact that plantation owners were often far from home.

The task system was used to organize slave labor.
Slaves were given a number of tasks to complete in a day.
Once those tasks were completed, slaves were given time to grow their own crops on garden plots.
Slaves here had a degree of economic independence.

Carolina slaves had a lot of cultural freedom.

The slave culture that was enabled by this autonomy and the frequent arrival of new Africans retained many African practices, and traditional African basket weaving is still practiced today.

The Stono Rebel lion was born in September 1739 because of this unique slave culture.

At least twenty white settlers were killed when a group of about eighty slaves set out for Spanish Florida under a banner that read "Liberty!"
on a Sunday morning.
The Spanish Empire's offer of freedom to any English slaves inspired them to go to Fort Mose, a free black settlement on the Georgia-Florida border.
The local militia defeated the rebels, captured and executed many of the slaves, and sold them to the sugar plantations of the West Indies.
Slaves would fight for freedom even though the rebellion was unsuccessful.

Slavery was important in the mid-Atlantic.

While New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania never developed plantation economies, slaves were employed on larger farms.
Some early Dutch families were granted huge tracts of land in New York's Hudson Valley that were used by enslaved Africans.
Slaves were a common sight in Philadelphia, New York City, and other ports where they worked in the maritime trades and domestic service.
New York City's economy was so reliant on slavery that over 40 percent of its population was enslaved by 1700, while 15 to 20 percent of Pennsyl vania's colonial population was enslaved by 1750.
Nine white colonists were killed in a 1712 slave rebellion in New York City.
In revenge, twenty-one slaves were executed and six of them committed suicide.
There was a planned rebellion by African slaves, free blacks, and poor whites in 1741.
Thirty-two slaves and free blacks and five poor whites were executed after panic unleashed a witch hunt.
The first group to turn against slavery was the Quak ers.

It's hard to justify slavery.

Slavery began in war, where captives were enslaved rather than executed, according to most commentators.
The foundation of slavery was illegitimate.
The basis of slavery was challenged by the belief in equality of souls.
By 1758, the Quakers in Pennsylvania disowned members who were involved in the slave trade, and by 1772 they could be kicked out of their meetings.
The decision to ban slavery and slave trading in Pennsylvania was debated in meetings throughout the English-speaking world.
Philadelphia and other northern cities have a free black population.

Slavery was legal throughout the region in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Connecticut.

The economic use of slavery was minimized by the absence of cash crops.

About 2% of the population was enslaved in Massachusetts as late as the 1760s.
Boston had a large free black community that made up 10% of the city's population, and the slave trade was a major part of the region's economy.
At least 150 ships were active in the trade between Newport, Rhode Island, and New England by 1740, and New England provided foodstuff and manufactured goods to West Indian plantations.
Only elite members of society are eligible to serve in elected positions in Europe.
Britain and the Dutch Republic are the only two European states that hold regular elections.
Only a small portion of males could vote in these countries.
White male suffrage was more widespread in the North American colonies.

The colonial government had more power in a number of areas.

They built roads and bridges, regulated businesses, imposed new taxes, and cared for the poor in their communities.
More power was given to local judges and more prestige was given to jury service when colonial Americans sued often.
Lawyers played a greater role in American politics as they became important in American society.

American society was not as tightly controlled as European society.

The rise of interest groups was at odds with each other.

The various interest groups were formed based on the same things.
Over class-based distinctions, some similarities arose, while others were due to ethnic or religious ties.
The lack of stable political parties was one of the major differences between modern politics and colonial political culture.
The elected assembly and the royal governor had disagreements in colonial politics.
The colonial legislatures were usually divided into groups that supported or opposed the current governor's political ideology.

Political structures in the colonies fell under one of three main egos: provincial, proprietary, and charter.

The most tightly controlled colonies were the provincial ones.
The British king appointed all provincial governors and these Crown governors could veto any decision made by their colony's legislative assembly.
Proprietary colonies had a similar structure, with one important difference: governors were appointed by the lord proprietor, an individual who had purchased or received the rights to the colony from the Crown.
Proprietary colonies have more freedom and liberties than other North American colonies.
The most complex system of government was the charter colonies, which were formed by political corporations or interest groups that drew up a charter clearly defining powers between the executive, legislative, and judiciary branches of government.
Property-owning men in the colony elected their own governors.

The council and assembly were the main divisions of the colonial government.

The governor's cabinet was made up of prominent individuals within the colony, such as the head of the militia or the attorney general.
The appointments were subject to approval from Parliament.
The goal of the assembly was to ensure that colonial law conformed to English law.

The idea of a social contract was accepted by the library.

Evidence suggests that philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes and John Locke influenced the colonists.

The idea of equality before the law and opposition to special treatment for members of colonial society were held by many colonists.

It was not clear if African Americans, Native Americans, and women would be included in this notion of equality before the law.

Women's role in the family became more complicated.

Anglo-American families during the colonial period differed from their European counterparts.
More people married earlier in life because of the plentiful land and natural resources.

Family sizes began to shrink by the end of the 1700s as wives asserted more control over their own bodies, despite the fact that young marriages and large families were common throughout the colonial period.

The nature of husband- wife relationships was changed by new ideas.

Many Americans began to view marriage as an emotionally fulfilling relationship rather than a strictly economic partnership, as a result of a contemporary literary movement.
Newspaper editor John Fenno and his wife Mary Curtis Fenno refer to one another as "My More Thanfriend" or "Beloved of my Soul", which is what some historians refer to as the "companionate ideal".
While away from his wife, John felt a vacuum in his existence.
After independence, wives began to provide emotional sustenance to their husbands, as well as the principles of republican citizenship as "republican wives".

Marriage opened up new emotional areas for some but was still oppressive for others.

Marriage was an informal arrangement for millions of Americans who were bound in chattel slavery.
The legal practice of coverture meant that white women lost their political and economic rights to their husbands.
There were more formal cases of abandonment in the 1790s.
Newspapers published ads by men and women who were not with their partners.
They cataloged the misbehaviors of deviant spouses, such as wives' "indecent manner," a way of implying sexual impropriety.
As violence and inequality continued in many American marriages, wives highlighted their husbands' violent rages and "drunken fits."
A woman said that her partner presented his gun at her.

Print culture includes factors such as the relationship between the author and the publisher, the technical constraints of the printer, and the importance of newspapers as a source of expression.

The way in which printed matter was made and used was impacted by chapTer 4.

The colonies dealt with threats of control from the imperialists.
Political content caused the most controversy.

Printing was either discouraged or re-garded after the establishment of Virginia in 1607.

The governor of Virginia, Sir William Berkeley, summed up the attitude of the ruling class in 1671: "I thank God there are no free schools or printing."
Berkeley's undoing was caused by the circulation of handwritten tracts.
The popularity of Nathaniel Bacon's uprising was due to tracts questioning Berkeley's competence.
Berkeley's oppression of the Rebellion was well documented.
The idea of printing in the southern colonies was revived after Berkeley's death.
Although the next governor of the colony forbade William Nuthead from completing a single project, he set up shop in 1682.
It wasn't until William Parks opened his printing shop in 1726 that the local trade in printing and books was stable.

New England had a different print culture.

From the beginning, Puritans had a re spect for print.
The foundations of Stephen Daye's first print shop were shaky because New England's authors were content to publish in London.
The printers usually made their money from printing sheets, not books.
Daye was awarded 140 acres of land because of the significance of his printing.
The first Bible to be printed in America was published in 1660 by Samuel Green and Marmaduke Johnson.
The Eliot Bible was printed in the local dialect of the local Algonquin tribes.

Philadelphia overtook Boston in 1770 as the center of colonial printing.

Philadelphia's rise as the printing capital of the colonies began with the arrival of Benjamin Franklin, a scholar and businessman, in 1723, as well as waves of German immigrants who created a demand for a German-language press.

Benjamin Franklin and David Hall changed the book trade in addition to creating public learning ini printers, such as the Library Company and the Academy of Philadelphia.

Philadelphia had newspapers, pamphlets, and books for sale.

The debate on religious expression continued into the 18th century.

Increase Mather is the most famous minister.
He said to test their faith against the challenges of America and win.
The descendants of the first settlers were worried that their faith had suffered because they had been born in well established colonies.
The colonists were looking for a renewed religious experience.
The result was known as the Great Awakening.

The Great Awakening looks like a unified movement with hindsight.

In all of these communities, the same need to strip their lives of worldly concerns was discussed.

It was a contradiction in form.
People were encouraged to find a personal relationship with God by preachers.

There were signs of religious revival in the church.

The Puritans shared the faith of a theologian named Edward.
He believed in the idea of predestination, in which God decided who would be saved and who would be damned.
However, he was worried that his congregation had stopped searching their souls and were just doing good works to prove they were saved.
He preached against worldly sins and called for his congregation to look inward for signs of God's saving grace.
In the winter of 1734, the sermons sent his congregation into convulsions.
There were known sinners in the community.
Half of the six hundred person congregation experienced physical symptoms over the next six months.
The work of his revival was shared in a pamphlet.

In the next decade, the spirit of revival was spread by the preachers.

The preachers brought with them a new religious experience.
They abandoned traditional sermons in favor of outside meetings where they could whip the congregation into an emotional frenzy to reveal evidence of saving grace.
Many religious leaders were suspicious of the enthusiasm and message of these revivals.

George Whitefield was the most famous preacher.

The only type of faith that pleased God was sincere.
The established churches encouraged apathy.
The Christian World is not awake.
A loud voice can awaken them.
He would be that voice.
Whitefield was a former actor who preached with a simple message.

Everyone was invited to be born again by Whitefield.

He traveled from New York to South Carolina to convert people.

There is a monkey and jester's staff in the right-hand corner of the image.

The impact this rhetoric could have was recorded by a farmer who saw that his righteousness would not save him.

The number of people trying to hear Whitefield's message was so large that he preached at the edges of cities.
In one case there were over twenty thousand people in Philadelphia.
Whitefield and the other preachers made the revivals popular.

The religious revivals were a casualty of the preachers' success.

As preachers became more experimental, they lost many people.

They had to dance naked in circles at night in order to be saved.

They could burn the books he didn't like.
It was shown that revivalism had gone wrong when there was a divide between "New Lights" and "Old Lights" in the 1740s and 1750s.

The religious revivals had a huge impact on America.

People were encouraged to question the world around them.
This idea created a language of individualism that promised to change everything else.
The call for independence reappeared in the language of individualism provided by the Great Awakening.
The groundwork was laid for a more republican society after America's revolution.
Society did not change quickly.
It would take a lot of conflict to change colonial life.

Thirty-seven of them were French and Native Americans, who were at war with Britain for seven years.

These wars were not fought by European soldiers.

British colonists suffered a physical and spiritual toll from warfare.

British towns are located on the Virginia border.
Library between New England and New France was raided frequently.

ColonIAl SoCIeTy 99 took captives and burned crops.

Some of the captives were taken to French Quebec, where they were held captive and later converted to Catholicism.
Catholicism was threatening to capture Protestant lands and souls.

Britain and France had disagreements over the boundaries of their empires.

In 1754 a force of British colonists and Native American allies led by George Washington killed a French diplomat.
The Seven Years' War was the French and Indian War.
Fort William Henry was burned in 1757.
These victories were often the result of alliances.

The war in Europe began in 1756 when Frederick II of Prussia invaded the neutral state of Saxony.

Prussia was attacked by a coalition of France, Austria, Russia, and Sweden.
The province of Silesia was lost to Prussia in a previous war and Maria Theresa wanted to take it back.
In the European war, the British supported the states of Prussia and the western German states of Hesse-Kassel and Braunschweig- Wolfenbuttel.

The smaller German states were able to fight France because of the subsidy payments.

The early part of the war was against the British.

After the Battle of Hastenbeck in 1757, the French defeated Britain's German allies.
Frederick of Prussia defeated the French in the Battle of Rossbach, while the Austrians defeated the Prussians in the Battle of Kolin.
The British were able to rejoin the war in Europe.
In December 1757, Frederick's army defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Leuthen, regaining the province of Silesia.
The British defeated the French in India and throughout the world's oceans.
The French were defeated at the Battle of Plassey by Robert Clive and his Indian allies.
The British could send more troops to North America if the sea was firmly in their control.

The British were able to launch new offen sives because of the newly arrived soldiers.

The British took over the French port and fortress of Louisbourg in 1758.
James Wolfe defeated Louis-Joseph de Montcalm in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham.
In Europe, in 1759, the British defeated the French at the Battle of Minden and destroyed their fleet.
The fall of French Canada was brought about by these victories, and the war in North America ended with the British capture of Montreal.
The Spanish entered the war in 1762.
The Spanish were unable to prevent the conquest of Cuba and the Philippines in this war.

The peace treaties of Paris and Hu bertusburg ended the Seven Years' War.

The British received a lot of Canada and North America from the French.
Tensions that would lead to revolution were caused by the British having a larger empire than they could control.
Language, national affiliation, and religious views were exposed as a result of it.

Both will be roasted in the fire when the Antichrist sinks.

After the defeat of Catholic France, American colonists were reassured that the Catholics in Quebec could not threaten them.

Since the 17th century, some American colonies have been sanctuaries for religious minorities.

Catholic Maryland showed early religious pluralism.
Practical toleration of Catholics existed alongside anti-Catholicism.

The rhetorical tool was a result of warfare between Britain and France.

Because of the constant conflict with Catholic France, Britons on either side of the Atlantic rallied around Protestantism.

The British called for a coalition to fight the French and Catholics.

The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel were founded at the turn of the 18th century to evangelize Native Americans and limit Jesuit conversions.

During the 1740s and 1730s, British Protestant churches came together after the Protestant revivals of the so-called Great Awakening.
Greater Atlantic trade was urged to bind the Protestant Atlantic through commerce and religion.

Neolin, a prophet, received a vision from the main deity of his religion, known as the Master of Life.

The Master of Life told Neolin that the only way to enter heaven was to expel the British from India.
The Whites are allowed on your lands.

Make war on them.

A return to traditional rituals, alcohol, and pan-Indian unity to his disciples are some of the things he has done.

The beginning of what would become known as Pontiac's War was sparked by Neolin's words.

The pan-Indian uprising included Native peoples from the territory between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River.
The development of the war was influenced by the actions of Pontiac, who did not command all of the Indians.
The British fort of Fort Detroit was besieged for six months in 1763 after the Indian warriors tried to take it.
More attacks on British forts and settlers followed the news of the siege.
In May, Native Americans captured several forts.
In June, a coalition ofOttawas and Ojibwes captured Fort Michilimackinac by staging a game of stickball outside the fort.
Almost half of the fort's British soldiers were killed when they chased the ball into the fort and gathered the arms that had been smuggled in by a group of Native American women.

The Indians were responding to Neolin's religious message, but there were many other reasons to fight the British.

The French were involved in the Indian practice of diplomatic gift giving.

The trade or sale of firearms to Indians was discouraged by the British.
Most Native Americans saw this as preparation for war.

The war ended in 1766.

The Indian war effort was undermined by disease and a shortage of supplies, and in July 1766 the British official and diplomat William Johnson met with the Native American leader and settled for peace.
The western Indians succeeded in changing the British government's Indian policy despite not winning the war.
The war made British officials realize that peace in the West would require royal protection of Indian lands and heavy-handed regulation of Anglo-American trade activity in Indian country.
The British Crown created a line between Indian country and the British colonies with the help of the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which was issued during the war.

The effects of the war were widespread.

The war proved that the British government's strategy to consolidate their power in North America was not an effective one.
The prohibition of Anglo-American settlement in Indian country caused discontent.
Crevecoeur suggested that America was a melting pot of self-reliant individual landholders, fiercely independent in pursuit of their own interests, and free from the burdens of European class systems.
The Seven Years' War pushed the thirteen American colonies closer together politically and culturally than ever before.
At the Albany Congress in 1754, Benjamin Franklin proposed a plan of union.
Thousands of colonials fought in the war.
At home, many heard or read sermons that portrayed the war as a struggle between civilizations with liberty-loving Britons arrayed against tyrant Frenchmen and savage Indians.
As a result of their collective victory, American colonists felt peace and prosperity.
They looked to the newly acquired lands west of the Appalachian Mountains as their reward after seven decades of warfare.

Imperial reforms on taxation, commerce, and politics were spurred by the Seven Years' War.

As new territory required new security obligations, Britain spent over PS140 million on the day.
The colonies were asked by Britain to share the costs of their own security.
Parliament started legislating over all the colonies in a way that was never done before.
The colonies began to see themselves as a collective group.

Civil liberties like protection from jury trials and unlawful searches were eroded by Britain's increasingly restrictive policies.

The rise of an antislavery movement made some worry that slavery would be attacked.

The moratorium on new settlements in the West was disappointing.

Americans had never been more united.

They realized that they were not considered full British citizens.

British liberties were seen as threats by Americans across the colonies.

The Stamp Act Congress of 1765 brought colonial leaders together in an unprecedented show of cooperation against taxes imposed by Parliament, and popular boycotts of British goods created a common narrative of sacrifice, resistance, and shared political identity.
A rebellion was imminent.

Emily Arendt, John Blanton, Alexander Burns, Mary Draper, Jamie Goodall, Jane Fiegen Green, Hendrick Isom, Kathryn Lasdow, Allison Madar, and Brooke Palmieri contributed to this chapter.

The revolution before 1776 is called Becoming America.

Cities and the American Revolution are some of the topics covered in Rebels Rising.

Hackel, Brayman, and Kelly are authors.