3. British North America

Native Americans saw settlements grow into unstoppable beachheads of vast new populations and that the land became something else entirely.

colonial societies developed in the 17th century.

The North American mainland was a small and marginal place in that broad empire, as the output of its most prosperous colonies paled before the Caribbean sugar islands.

Many imperial officials ignored the colonial backwaters on the North American mainland, but they were still tied into the larger Atlantic networks.
The continents of Europe, Africa, and the Americas were connected by the Atlantic World.

The lives of American colonists were influenced by events across the ocean.

Civil war, religious conflict, and nation building transformed Britain and made societies on both sides of the ocean.
At the same time, colonial settlements developed into powerful societies that could fight against Native Americans.
Patterns and systems established during the colonial era would continue to shape American society for hundreds of years.
The institution of slavery would be brutal and destructive.

Reverend Francis Le Jau was a missionary in Charles Town, Carolina, in 1706.

He met Indians who traveled south to enslave enemy villages, as well as Africans who were ravaged by the Middle Passage.
He was surrounded by slavery and death.

The English were Le Jau's strongest complaint.

The turning point for black men and women in colonies like Virginia in North America and the West Indies occurred in the 1660s.

Legal sanction was given to the enslavement of people of African descent.
The maintenance of strict racial barriers can be achieved through the permanent deprivation of freedom and separate legal status of enslaved Africans.

Modern classifications of racial hierarchy were not directly pointed toward by seventeenth-century racial thought.

The master of a slave ship in 1694 did not justify his work with any creed: "I can't think of any intrinsic value in one color more than another, nor that white is better than black, only we think it so because we are so."
The only reason thatPhillips needed was the profitability of slavery.

Wars were the most common way to acquire Native American slaves.

European legal thought held that enslaving prisoners of war was more humane than killing them.
Hundreds of North American Indians were sold into slavery in the West Indies after the Pequot War.
The Governor Kieft's War and the two Esopus Wars were fought by the Dutch in New Netherland and New York.
King Philip's War resulted in the capture of a larger number of Indian slaves.
The Indians were bound and shipped to slavery.
The Barbados Assembly refused to import the New England Indians because they were afraid they would encourage rebellion.

The wars in Florida, South Carolina, and the Mississippi Valley produced more Indian slaves.

Some wars were created as a result of contests between Indians and colonists for land.
Slave traders were involved in some of the illegal raids.
Between 24,000 and 51,000 Native Americans were forced into slavery in the southern colonies between 1670 and 1755, and many of them were exported to other ports in the British Atlantic.
The violence inherent in the Indian slave trade made it difficult for the English to claim land in frontier territories.
By the 18th century, colonial governments discouraged the practice as long as slavery was a legal institution.

Most Native American slaves died from disease, but others were murdered or died from starvation.

The slave trade provided a reliable labor force for growing plantation economies.
The Middle Passage is where European slavers transported millions of Africans.

Some slaves committed suicide because of the 57 tion.

Alexander Falconbridge, a slave ship surgeon, described the sufferings of slaves from shipboard infections and close quarters in the hold.
captives were left lying in pools of excrement.
Slaves were chained in small spaces in the hold and could lose a lot of their skin and flesh from being hit by metal and timber.
Rapes, whippings, and diseases were detailed in other sources.
The Middle Passage was an important part of the maritime trade in sugar and other semifinished American goods, manufactured European commodities, and African slaves.
The middle leg of the journeys from Africa to the Americas was the Middle Passage.
An overland journey from Africa to a coastal slave-trading factory was the first.

The Brookes print still shows enslaved Africans chained in rows using leg shackles, despite the fact that it was printed after the Slave Trade Act of 1787.

The Brookes was allowed to carry up to 454 slaves, with each man getting 5 feet 10 inches and each woman getting 1 foot 4 inches.

Acculturation and transportation to the American mine, plantation, or other location where slaves were forced to labor was third.

The cultures of the Americas were impacted by the Middle Passage.

As part of the slave trade, many foods associated with Africans were imported to West Africa and then adopted by African cooks before being brought to the Americas.
Today's West African rhythms and melodies can be found in a variety of forms, from religious spirituals to synthesized drumbeats.
The basket making and language of the Gullah people on the Carolina coastal islands are influenced by African influences.

Between eleven and twelve million Africans were forced across the Atlantic between the 16th and 19th century, with two million deaths at sea and an additional million dying in the trade's overland African leg.

The Catalans and Aragonese were brought into contact with sugar and slaves in the 14th and 15th century.

The first steps toward an Atlantic slave trade were taken by Europeans when Portuguese sailors landed in West Africa in search of gold, spices, and allies against the Muslims who dominated Mediterranean trade.
African slaves were carried to Portugal by ship captains.
European expansion into the Americas introduced both settlers and European authorities to a new situation--an abundance of land and a scarcity of labor.
Africans were forced to America by Portuguese, Dutch, and English ships.
The western coast of Africa, the Gulf of Guinea, and the westcentral coast were the sources of African captives.
The war of expansion and raiding produced captives who could be sold in coastal factories.

African slave traders bartered for European finished goods such as beads, cloth, rum, firearms, and metal wares.

Slaves were sea soned in places like Barbados when Slavers landed in the British West Indies.

The leading entry point for slaves on the mainland was Charleston, South Carolina.

Elmina Castle was established as a trade settlement by the Portuguese in the 15th century and was the first trading post built on the Gulf of Guinea.

One of the largest and most important markets for African slaves along the Atlantic slave trade was the fort.
The castle of Elmina can be seen from the river.

The Spanish king issued a decree in 1693 that granted freedom to slaves fleeing the English colonies if they converted to Catholicism and swore an oath of loyalty to Spain.

About 450,000 Africans landed in British North America, a relatively small portion of the eleven to twelve million victims of the trade.

The natural reproduction of slaves on the North American continent was aided by the fact that African women had more children than their counterparts in the Caribbean or South America.

Modern notions of race were related to the slave trade in the Americas.

Most English citizens did not feel any racial identification with the Irish or the Welsh.

The idea of race as a physical difference that is used to support systems of oppression was new in the early modern Atlantic world.

In the early years of slavery in the South, the distinction between indentured servants and slaves was not clear.

The law that made African women "tithable" was passed in Virginia.

African women's work with difficult agricultural labor was associated with this.

White women were not subject to the same tax as African women.
The English ideal was to have enough hired hands and servants working on the farm so that wives and daughters didn't have to do manual labor.
White women were expected to work in dairy sheds, gardens, and kitchens.
White women did participate in field labor because of the labor shortage.
The English thought of themselves as better than other groups who did not divide labor in this way, including the West Africans who arrived in slave ships to the colonies.
The enslavement and subordination of Africans was justified by the association of a gendered division of labor with Englishness.

Legal and customary understandings of marriage and the home in England informed ideas about the rule of the household.

A man was expected to hold "paternal dominion" over his household, which included his wife, children, servants, and slaves.
Slaves were subject to the authority of the white master because they were not legally masters of the household.
Slave marriages weren't recognized in colonial law.

Some enslaved men and women married people who were not on the same plantation and were not owned by the same master.

The husbands and wives had to travel a lot to visit their spouses.
Religious authority did not protect these marriages, and masters could refuse to let their slaves visit a spouse, or even sell a slave to a new master hundreds of miles away from their spouse and children.
Slaves struggled to establish families and communities within the patriarchal and exploitative colonial environment.

Catholic and Protestant English monarchs vied for supremacy and attacked their opponents as heretics while Spain was plundering the New World.

Queen Elizabeth made Protestantism the official religion of the realm, but there were questions as to what kind of Protestantism would hold sway.

Many radical Protestants looked to the New World as an opportunity to create a beacon of Calvinist Christianity, while others continued the struggle in England.
By the 1640s, political and economic conflicts between Parliament and the Crown merged with long-simmering religious tensions made worse by a king who seemed sympathetic to Catholicism.
There was a civil war.
As England waged war on itself, Colonists reacted in a variety of ways.

Between 1629 and 1640 the absolute rule of Charles I caused a lot of tension between the English Parliament and the king.

Charles wanted to suppress a rebellion in Scotland but the Parliament refused to grant him subsidies.
Civil war broke out in England in 1642 because of strained relations between Parliament and Charles.
England became a republic and protectorate in 1649 after Charles I was executed.
The new government under Cromwell tried to consolidate its hold over its overseas territories, as the changes redefined England's relationship with its American colonies.

No British colony in North America was more than 25 years old in 1642.

Most of the colonies were under the control of the Crown and various proprietors.
In Massachusetts Bay, Puritan settlers governed themselves according to the colony's 1629 charter.
The English government left the colonies to their own devices as a result of the trade in tobacco and naval stores.

Virginia and Maryland were colonies that sympathized with the Crown.

Massachusetts Bay, populated by religious dissenters taking part in the Great Migration of the 1630s, tended to favor Parliament.
The colonies were neutral during the war because they worried that support for either side could lead to a war.
Massachusetts Bay was neutral.

American neutrality was challenged by Charles's execution.

The dead monarch's son, Charles II, had six colo nies declare their loyalty.
The rebelling colonies were forced to accept Parliament's authority after an economic embargo was leveled in 1650.
Parliament argued that America had been "planted at the Cost, and settled" by the English nation, and that it was the embodiment of that commonwealth.
After all previous constitutional compromises between King Charles and Parliament had broken down, both sides raised large armies in the hopes of forcing the other side to concede their position.
The English Civil War lasted over four years and resulted in the creation of the Commonwealth of England in 1649.

After the death of Oliver Cromwell in 1658, England found itself in crisis, leading to the re-establishment of the monarchy.

Charles II sailed from the Netherlands to his restoration after nine years in exile on his birthday.
He was well received in London, depicted in this contemporary painting.

Parliament wanted to bind the colonies more closely to England and prevent other European nations from interfering with its American possessions.

The monarchy was restored with Charles II, but popular suspicions of the Crown's Catholic and French sympathies lingered.

The suppression of the religious and press freedoms that flourished during the civil war years demonstrated the Crown's desire to reimpose order and royal rule.
James II's pro-French policies led to the overthrow of the monarchy in 1688.
The English throne was offered to the Dutch prince and his bride, Mary, the daughter of James II, by a group of Parliamentarians.
The coup was called the Glorious Revolution.

In the decades before the Glorious Revolution, English colonists experienced religious and political conflict that reflected changes in Europe as well as distinctly colonial conditions.

In the 1670s and early 1680s, King Charles II tightened English control over North America and the West Indies through the creation of new colonies and the establishment of a new executive council called the Lords of Trade and Plantations.
The Wampanoag leader Metacom led an uprising in New England in 1675 that seemed to confirm the fears.

The revolt against royal authorities in Virginia was triggered by Indian conflicts.

James II created the Dominion of New England in 1686 to place the colonies on a defensive footing.

The New England colonies, New York, and New Jersey were consolidated into one administrative unit to counter French Canada, but the colonies strongly resented the loss of their individual provinces.

Sir Edmund Andros, the governor of the Dominion, did little to quell fears of arbitrary power when he forced colonists into military service for a campaign against the Maine Indians.
English commoners had a long-standing desire to serve in the military.

James II's push for religious toleration of Catholics and dissenters brought him into conflict with Parliament and the Anglican establishment in England.

James II fled to France after the William of Orange invaded.
When it was learned that officials in Boston and New York City were trying to keep the news of the Revolution secret, there was anger toward provincial leaders.
In Massachusetts, New York, and Maryland, local social antagonisms fused with popular animosity toward imperial rule led to the overthrew of colonial governments.
Colonists in America declared their loyalty to the new monarchs.
They maintained order in their colonies.
If there was no King in England, there was no government in Virginia.
A declaration of allegiance was a means of stability.

The ascension of William and Mary was declared for by the colonists because they believed that it confirmed the importance of Protestantism and liberty in English life.

The provinces were restored to their previous status and the Maryland government was forced out by the settlers.

They launched several assaults against French Canada as part of King William's War, and they were happy that Parliament passed a Bill of Rights in 1689 that curbed the power of the monarchy.
It was a "glorious" revolution for the English as it united them in a Protestant empire that stood against Catholic tyranny and French power.

Several new settlements joined the two original colonies of Virginia and Massachusetts in the 17th century.

In 1632, Charles I set aside 12 million acres of land for a second colony in America.

Maryland was given to Charles's friend and political ally, the second Lord Baltimore.

Calvert wanted to create a haven for fellow Catholics and gain more wealth from the colony.

Many of the faith in England were harassed by the Protestant majority and some considered moving to America.
Lord Baltimore's plan to create a colony that would demonstrate that Catholics and Protestants could live together peacefully was supported by Charles I, a Catholic sympathizer.

Both Protestant and Catholic settlers arrived in Maryland in 1634.

Maryland was a tobacco colony without the growing pains of Virginia.

Lord Baltimore's hopes of a diverse Christian colony were not realized.

The majority of colonists were Protestants.
Many of these Protestants were angry with Virginia for trying to force adherence to the Church of England.
The Puritans created a new government that banned both Catholicism and Anglicanism.
The revolt was put down in 1658 by Governor William Stone.
The province became a royal colony after the Calverts lost control of Maryland.

Religion was a motivating factor in the creation of several colonies, including the New England colonies of Connecticut and Rhode Island.

The settlements that would eventually compose chApter 3 Connecticut were in Saybrook and New Haven.

The area around Boston was becoming more crowded and Thomas Hooker and his congregation left Massachusetts for Connecticut.

The Connecticut River Valley was large enough for more farming.

In June 1636, Hooker led one hundred people and a variety of livestock in setting up their new home.

The found ers attempted a new experiment in Puritanism at New Haven Colony.

In 1638, John Davenport and other Puritans settled in the New Haven area of the Connecticut River Valley.
The governor of New Haven Colony was named in 1642.
Three men who signed the death warrant for Charles I were hiding in New Haven.
The colony became poorer and weaker as a result of this.
New Haven was absorbed into Connecticut in 1665, but its religious tradition remained.

Rhode Island was founded by religious radicals.

Roger Williams established a settlement called Providence in 1636.
He was able to get the land with the local sachems.
Williams and his fellow settlers established religious and political freedom in the colony.
Anne Hutchinson and her followers settled near Providence after being exiled from Massachusetts.
Parliament granted a charter to the colony in 1644.
The settlers refused a governor and elected a president and council.
In 1652, these communities passed laws abolishing witchcraft trials, imprisonment for debt and chattel slavery.
Because of the colony's policy of toleration, it became a haven for religious groups.
The colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations was granted a royal charter in 1663 by Charles II.

The area between Virginia and New England was neglected by the English until the middle of the 17th century.

The climate was more pleasant than New England.
The mid-Atlantic had three rivers that were very easy to navigate.
The New Sweden and New Netherland colonies were established by the Swedes and Dutch.

The settlements on the Hudson River were relatively small compared to other Dutch colonies.

The Dutch West India Com realized that in order to secure its fur trade in the area, it needed to establish a greater presence in New Netherland.
New Amsterdam was formed on Manhattan Island in 1625.

The population in New Netherland remained small despite the Dutch extending religious tolerance to those who settled there.

The colony was left vulnerable to English attack during the 1650s and 1660s, which resulted in the handover of New Netherland to England in 1664.
James, the Duke of York, brother to Charles II and funder of the expedition against the Dutch in 1664, founded the new colony of New York.
New York was briefly reconquered by the Netherlands in 1667, and class and ethnic conflicts in New York City contributed to the rebellion against English authorities during the Glorious Revolution of 1688- 1689.
The New York Anglicans noted that the Dutch colony was rather like a conquered foreign province.

Charles II and the Duke of York wanted to strengthen English control over the Atlantic seaboard.

The awarding of the new colonies of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and the Carolinas was a payoff of debts and political favors.

The area between the Hudson and Delaware rivers was granted to two English noblemen in 1664 by the Duke of York.

The lands were divided into two colonies, East Jersey and West Jersey.
William Penn was one of West Jersey's proprietors.
Both Charles II and the Duke of York would grant Penn's request for a larger colony.
Pennsylvania was located west of the Delaware River and New Sweden.
Penn wanted his colony to be a "colony of Heaven for the children of Light" and he was a member of the Society of Friends.
Pennsylvania was to be an example of godliness.
Penn wanted to create a colony of harmony instead of a colony of unity.

The people of Europe are made up of French, Dutch, Germans, Swedes, Danes, Finns, Scotch, and English.

The colony attracted a diverse collection of migrants because of the same rights that the Quakers in Pennsylvania had for themselves in England.
Slavery was a problem for some pf the pf the pf the pf the pf the pf the pf the pf the pf the pf the pf the pf the pf the pf the pf the pf the pf the

Philadelphia signed a petition against slavery.

The Pennsylvania soil did not lend itself to slave-based agriculture, but other colonies depended on slavery from their very foundations.

The creation of the colony of Carolina was part of Charles II's plan to strengthen the English hold on the Eastern Seaboard and pay off political and cash debts.
The model of the colonization of Barbados was used by the lords of Carolina to settle the area.
Charles Town was founded in 1670 by three ships of settlers from Barbados.
England's growing confidence as a colonial power was demonstrated by this defiance of Spanish claims.

Religious tolerance, political representation by assembly, exemption from fees, and large land grants were some of the incentives offered by the lords proprietor.

Carolina grew quickly, attracting not only mediocre farmers and artisans but also wealthy planters.
150 acres per family member was granted to colonists who could pay their own way to Carolina.
Slaves were allowed to be counted as members of the family.

The Lord's Proprietor was founded in 1733.

The establishment and solidification of the British North American colonies did not go smoothly.

There were many explosions of violence in the English settlements on the continent.

In May 1637, a group of English Puritans trekked into Indian country in territory claimed by New England.

The north and south ends of the town were put to the torch by the Puritans.
The men, women, and children tried to escape the fire, but other soldiers were waiting with guns and swords.
Four hundred souls were estimated by one commander.
The English Puritans boasted that the Pequot were killed by the sword in less than two months.

The battle for control of the fur and wampum trades in the northeast was the foundation of the war.

The English and Dutch were forced to choose sides.
The war was still a conflict of Native interests and initiative as the Mohegan hedged their bets on the English.

Security and stability for the English colonies was provided by victory over the Pequot, as well as propelling the Mohegan to new heights of political and economic influence as the primary power in New England.

The Wampanoag war against the Puritans seemed to repeat itself later in the century as the Mohegan, desperate for a remedy to their diminishing strength, joined the war.

King Philip's War ended Indian power in New England in 1675.

The body of a Wampanoag man was found under the ice of a pond in the winter of 1675.

An offensive against the English is being planned.

The three alleged killers appeared in court.
They were executed after being found guilty of murder.
A group of Wampanoags killed nine English people.

Metacom had entered into covenants of submission to various colonies, viewing them as relationships of protection and reciprocity rather than subjugation.

Indians and English lived, traded, worshipped, and arbitrated disputes in close proximity before 1675, but the execution of three Metacom's men at the hands of Plymouth Colony epitomized what many Indians viewed as the growing inequality of that relationship.

The Wampanoags may have wanted to retaliate for the recent executions.
They did not seek to destroy all of New England in war.
Connecticut and Massachusetts assisted the authorities in Plymouth.

In the summer of 1675, Metacom and his followers struck more towns as they moved northwest.

Some groups joined his forces, while others remained neutral.
Some Indian communities were divided by the war.
In the autumn of 1675 there was a lot of panic and violence in New England.
English distrust of neutral Indians, accompanied by demands that they surrender their weapons, pushed many into open war.
Most of the Indians of western and central Massachusetts entered the war by the end of 1675, laying waste to nearby English towns.

Hapless colonial forces were unable to locate more mobile Native communities or intercept Indian attacks.

The Narragansett of Rhode Island was attacked by the English in December 1675.

As many as 1,000 men, women, and children were killed in the Great Swamp Fight when 1,000 Englishmen put the main village to the torch.
The Indians were already fighting the English.

Between February and April 1676, English towns were devastated by Native forces.

The tide turned in the spring of 1676 Benjamin Church urged the New England colonies to find and fight the mobile warriors.

As the Indians were unable to plant crops and were forced to live off the land, their will to continue the struggle waned as companies of English and Native allies pursued them.
Fighters fled the region in the spring and summer.
Many of the group were sold into slavery by the English.
The sachem was killed in August 1676 by a Christian Indian who was fighting with the English.

The war changed the political landscape of New England.

Between eight hundred and one thousand English and at least three thousand Indians died in the fourteen-month conflict.

Many Indians fled the region and were sold into slavery.

In 1670, Native Americans made up 25 percent of New England's population, but a decade later they made up 10 percent.
The legacy of King Philip's War continued even after the fighting stopped.

New England faced a new fear after 16 years.

Salem Town, Salem Village, Ipswich, and Andover all tried women and men as witches.

Fourteen women and six men were executed after Paranoia swept through the region.
Five people died in prison.
Local rivalries, political turmoil, enduring trauma of war, faulty legal procedure, and even low-level environmental contamination are some of the causes of the trials.
Tituba, an Indian or African woman who was enslaved by the local minister, was at the center of the tragedy.22 Native American communities in Virginia had already been decimated by wars in 1622 and 1644.
New Englanders defeated Metacom's forces in Virginia the same year.
Tensions between Native Americans and English settlers, as well as tensions between wealthy English landowners and the poor settlers who pushed west into Indian territory, led to this conflict.

An argument over a pig started the Rebellion.

In the summer of 1675, a group of Doeg Indians traveled to northern Virginia to collect a debt from Thomas Mathew.
Some of Mathew's pigs were taken to settle the debt.
A series of raids and counterraids were sparked by this "theft".
Fourteen people were killed when the militia mistook the Indians for Doegs.
The English laid siege to the Susquehannock after they retaliated by killing colonists in Virginia and Maryland.
The militia executed a delegation of ambassadors under a flag of truce.
The English were killed in raids along the frontier by a few parties of warriors.

The political crisis in Virginia was caused by the sudden and unpredictable violence of the Susquehannock War.

colonists fled from the vulnerable frontiers, flooding into coastal communities and begging the government for help.
Sir William Berkeley did not send an army after the Susquehannock.
He worried that a full-scale war would drag other Indians into the conflict and turn allies into enemies.
Berkeley insisted on a defensive strategy that included a string of new fortifications to protect the frontier and instructions not to antagonize friendly Indians.
It was a public relations disaster.
Berkeley was condemned by terrified colonists.
Berkeley's wealthy friends decided that their own plantations were the most important.
Colonists accused the government of being more interested in lining their pockets than protecting the people.

In the spring of 1676, a small group of frontier colonists took matters into their own hands.

These self-styled "volunteers" proclaimed that they took up arms in defense of their homes and families after naming the charismatic young Nathaniel Bacon as their leader.
Berkeley feared a coup and branded the volunteers as traitors, but they took pains to assure them that they intended no disloyalty.
Berkeley was able to crush the colonists' rebellion.
His response catapulted a small group of anti- Indians into rebels who were able to bring down the government.

As well as friendly Indians like the Pamunkeys and the Occaneechi, bacon and the rebels hunted the Susquehannock.

The rebels believed there was a plan to destroy the English.

In the summer of 1676, Bacon's neighbors elected him their burgess and sent him to confront Berkeley.

The House of Burgesses enacted pro-rebel reforms such as prohibiting the sale of arms to Indians and restoring speach rights to landless freemen.
The rebel leader was forced to beg forgiveness for his actions after Berkeley arrested him.
The State House was surrounded by an army of followers who demanded that Berkeley name him the general of Virginia and bless his universal war against Indians.
Instead, the seventy-year-old governor stepped onto the field in front of the crowd of angry men, unafraid, and called the man a traitor to his face.
If he was so intent on overthrowing his government, he tore open his shirt and dared him to shoot him.
Berkeley drew his sword and challenged the young man to a duel, knowing that he could neither back down from a challenge nor kill him without making himself into a villain.
Instead, he used bluster.
He cursed and threatened to slaughter the entire assembly if necessary.
24 Berkeley was defiant, but the cowed burgesses finally prevailed upon him to grant the request.
Virginia had a general, and bacon had a war.

The Rebellion spiraled out of control after this dramatic confrontation.

Berkeley was able to rebuild his army because he diverted his attention to the coasts and away from the Indians.
The rebels were more interested in defending their homes and families than in fighting other Englishmen, and they deserted in droves at every rumor of Indian activity.
The "rebellion" was more of a collection of local grievances and personal rivalries than a military campaign.
Both rebels and loyalists were interested in plunder, seizing their rivals' estates and confiscating their property.

White servants and black slaves fought side by side in both armies after being promised freedom for military service.

Everyone accused everyone else of treason, rebels and loyalists switched sides depending on which side was winning, and the whole Chesapeake disintegrated into a confused melee of secret plots and grandiose crusades, sordid vendettas and desperate gambits, with Indians and English alike struggling for supremacy and survival.
One Virginian said the rebellion was their time of anarchy.

The rebels suffered a crushing loss of ground.

His successors surrendered to Berkeley in January 1677.
Berkeley tried and executed the rebel leadership.

The royal fleet arrived carrying over one thousand red-coated troops and a royal commission of investigation charged with restoring order to the colony.

Berkeley died in disgrace after being dispatched to London by the commissioners.

The main tenance of order remained precarious for years after the conclusion of the Rebellion.

The garrison of royal troops discouraged Indians from entering and allowed the king to make money from tobacco.
The end of armed resistance did not mean a resolution to the underlying tensions.
Outside of Virginia, Indians remained a terrifying threat.
The planters exploited their indentured servants and marginalized small farmers.

Virginians continued to resent their exploitation.

In the years after the rebellion, the social and political conditions of poor white Virginians improved, as legislators recognized the extent of popular hostility toward colonial rule.
Increased availability of enslaved workers through the Atlantic slave trade contributed to planters' large-scale adoption of slave labor.

The Spanish experienced tumult in the area of contemporary New Mexico a few years after the Rebellion.

The Spanish suppressed Native American beliefs in order to maintain control.

Native idols and masks were burned and traditional spiritual practices were banned by the friar.

Between 1000 and 1000, the Spanish Built and Santa Fe were besieged by several thousand Puebloan warriors.

Four hundred were killed, including the twenty-one Franciscan priests, and two thousand were allowed to flee.
It was the greatest act of New Mex Indian resistance in North American history.

Pope pro Revolt said that the God of the Christians is dead.

The Spanish were exiled for twelve years because of their spiritual practices.

They returned in 1692.

Cre is going toconquer New Mexico.

There was a lot of violence and turmoil in the late 17th century.

King Philip's War shattered Indian resistance in New England, and the Rebellion turned white Virginians against one another.

It would take several more decades before similar patterns erupted in Carolina and Pennsylvania, but the constant advance of European settlements provoked conflict in these areas as well.

The Yamasee, Carolina's closest allies and most lucrative partners, turned against the colony in 1715 and almost destroyed it.

The Yamasee would eventually reach Charles Town.

The Yamasee War's first victims were traders.

Two of the colony's most prominent men were patched up by the governor after rumors of native unrest.
The Yamasee killed the emissaries and every English trader they could corral.

The Yamasee, like many other Indians, had come to depend on the courts as much as the flintlock rifles and bullets that traders offered them for slaves and animal skins.

Feuds between English agents in India caused the court of trade to shut down and led to the Yamasee reprisal.
Most Indian villages in the southeast sent warriors to join the cause against the colony.

Charles Town was able to preserve one important alliance with the Cherokee.

The only remaining threat was roaming Yamasee bands from Spanish Florida.
Most Indian villages resumed trading after returning to terms with Carolina.
The lucrative trade in Indian slaves, which had consumed fifty thousand souls in five decades, dwindled after the war.
The colonies imported Africans to work on new rice plantations in order to make more money.
The birth of the Old South was caused by the expanse of plantations that created untold wealth and misery.
Indians kept the strongest militaries in the region, but never threatened the survival of English colonies.

Pennsylvania would be a good place for peace with Indians to continue.

William Penn created a religious imperative for the peaceful treatment of Indians at the colony's founding.
Penn demanded that his colonists obtain Indian territories through purchase rather than violence, even though he never doubted that the English would appropriate Native lands.
Increased immigration and land speculation increased the demand for land in Pennsylvania.
Fraudulent methods of negotiation became more prominent.
The Walking Purchase of 1737 was an example of the colonists' desire for cheap land and the changing relationship between Pennsylvanians and their Native neighbors.

In 1737, Native Delaware leaders agreed to sell Pennsylvania all of the land that a man could walk in a day and a half, a measurement used by Delawares in evaluating distances.

John and Thomas Penn, along with the land speculator and friend of the Penns James Logan, hired a team of skilled runners to complete the "walk" on a prepared trail.

The runners traveled from Wrightstown to the present-day town of Jim Thorpe, and proprietary officials drew a new boundary line northeast to the Delaware River.
The Delaware had intended to sell a tract of land, but it was measured out by the colonial government.
Delaware-proprietary relations suffered.
Delaware left the lands in question to join other Delaware already living in the Ohio Valley.
They established trade relationships with the French.
During the upcoming Seven Years' War, the Pennsylvanian government and the Delaware fought over the memories of the suspect purchase.

Britain's North American colonies were created in the 17th century.

Colonists fought against hostile natives and unforgiving climates for a century.
They used ruthless expressions of power.
Colonists conquered Native Americans, attacked European rivals, and joined a lucrative transatlantic economy.
After surviving a century of desperation and war, British North American colonists created societies with unique religious cultures, economic ties and political traditions.
The entire Atlantic World would be shaped by these societies.

The chapter was edited by Daniel Johnson.

There are notes to ch A p ter 3.

The estimated number of Africans carried across the Atlantic was 9 million.

Joseph E. Inikori estimated 15 million, and Patrick Manning estimated 12 million.