ChAPTER 25 The Rise of Russia

Ivan III and Ivan IV were particularly inventive.

Ivan IV prepared huge genealogy books that ignored the claims of other descendants.

Russia was referred to as the "third Rome" by the early tsars.
Rome was a well-admired state from the classical past, and Byzantium added an element of Christian mission.
Russia could be seen as protecting the faith.
The lives of the saints and church resolutions of Ivan IV were designed to show how God's purpose from creation onward had been to find a true Christian empire and how Russia was now called to fulfill this purpose.

Ivan gave way to Peter the Great because he was sickly and ineffective.

The symbolism with which the tsars were invested is suggested by the portrait.

The heri tage of the Mongols was invoked by Ivan IV as he was campaigning in central Asia.

According to this argument, Russia should rule in central Asia because it was the long-standing property of the Rurik dynasty and because it was his duty as a Christian monarch to extirpate the rule of the infidel.
There are three lessons that may be taken from this.

Tsars claimed a lot.

Their claims had significant contradictions.
The new empire would inevitably be complex because it touched so many different regions.
Russia's rulers were challenged by its size as it came to embrace many different people.
The chapter focuses on Russian expansion and tsarist power, but also on social conditions that distinguished Russia during a crucial period in the nation's development.

The rise of Western power was accompanied by changes in the world economy and over seas empires.

Russia was a land-based empire that maintained its own dynamic during the Early Modern centuries.
Russia would change its relationship to the West and show some impact of larger economic relationships as a result of these other global changes.
As a growing power, as a "gunpowder" empire, and as an economy dependent on its own system of unfree labor are some of the comparative vantage points.

The patterns in Russia were very different from those in the Atlantic world.

Russia is a very successful example of a land-based empire that sprang up in various parts of the world.
There were some links to other developments.

Russia sought to develop a new system of labor controls for both political and economic reasons, and this brought some similarities with social changes in Latin America.

Russia came to engage in active borrowing from the West.

Russia's emergence as a new power in eastern Europe and central Asia depended on gaining freedom from the Tatar.

The liberation effort began in the 14th century in the Duchy of Moscow.

The effectiveness of the control of the Mongols began to diminish.

Ivan is also known as the pendence.
Ivan the Great was the prince of duchy of Moscow and claimed succession from the Rurik Great.
Ivan organized a strong army and gave the new government a military emphasis.
Ivan gained the title of tsar of the PolishLithuanian kingdom after 1462, after freeing Russia from any payment to the Mongols.

Russia's rise had some similarities to earlier Macedonian and Roman expansion: a new state on the fringes of the civilized world.

One of the novel varieties of empire introduced in the Early Modern period was the new Russian empire.

The rulers were interested in tribute, not full government, and the need for Revival Mongol control never changed basic Russian values.

Many landlords in Russia adopted the Mongol style of dress and social habits.
Most Russians remained Christians, and the local administrative issues remained in the hands of princes, landlords, or peasant villages.
When full independence was achieved, Russia was going to resume many of its earlier patterns.
The levels of literacy among the priests were lowered due to the reduced vigor of Russian cultural life.

With trade down and manufacturing limited, Russia became a purely agricultural economy dependent on peasant labor.

The challenge of revival and reform was brought about by independence.

The new sense of imperial mission was added to by Ivan the Great's earlier tradition of centralized rule, which went back to the Rurik dynasty and Byzantine precedents.

The niece of the last Byzantine emperor gave him the power to control all Orthodox churches regardless of where they are in Russia.

Early modern Russia was shaped by military needs.

Moscow was sacked by a Tatar group as late as 1571.
Russia's rulers pressed conquests beyond defense.
They seized additional territory from the Tatars in what is now Ukraine, and also in central Asia, through the 16th century, and they began to expand in east-central Europe, which brought them face to face with other military opponents.

The tsars began to grant hereditary territories to military nobles in order to recruit soldiers.

Many serfs fled to border regions because of the harsh conditions.
The regulations on serfs were tightened because of a labor shortage.
In contrast to trends in western Europe, where serfdom was easing up, this launched a pattern of constraints on serfs.
Peasants who fled provided both military muscle and labor for Russian expansion into Siberia.
Cossack colonies were formed from peasant fighting men.

The boyars were put down after these conflicts in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Key developments in Russia were defined by this pattern and the deep-seated and durable pressures on the serfs.

During one episode, the tsar flew into violent rages and killed his expansion.

The introduction of printing into Russia was one of the key gains of his conquests.

Steady territo rial expansion policy was put in place to push the former Mongol overlords farther back.

Russia had few natural barriers to invasion.

The early tsars were able to turn this disadvantage into an advantage by pushing southward toward the Caspian Sea.
Efforts to flee serfdom and migrate to the newly seized lands of Ivan III and Ivan IV gave another boost.
Peasants were recruited on horseback.
The expansion territories were ready to migrate to newly seized lands frontier quality, but gradually settled down to more regular administration.
The Cossack spirit in Russia, particularly in the south, provided volunteers for further expansion, and many of the pioneers--like their American coun--chafed under detailed tsarist control and were eager to move on conquest.
The Cossacks conquered the frontier conquests and settlements of the Caspian Sea during the 16th century.

Expansion allowed tsars to give estates to nobles and bureaucrats in new territories.

Russia expanded from its base in the Moscow region to three different directions, as the government encouraged Russians to move eastward.

Political controls were extended.

Slaves were used for certain kinds of production work in the 18th century.

Although Russia never became of Russian tsar Ivan IV without being dependent on expansion for social control and economic advancement as the later Roman empire or heir early in 17th century, it certainly had many reasons to continue the policy.
Russia tried to use a vacuum of power connections with its new Asian territories.

Russia was ruled by a large Troubles until 1917.

The tsars realized that the youngest member of Russia's cultural and economic subordination had put them at a commercial and the royal family at the time of their execution.

The new multinational empires were created to foster loyalty.

By the 17th century Modern period, Russia's efforts to standardize the French language were the most successful.
After ture were coming together, the Habsburg empires flickered.

The empires of the past and the other century have continued into multinational entities.

In the long run, most mul tsar took oaths of loyalty to this region in order to survive in the face of increasing demands from this region.

Russia had different national groups.
The collapse of several multinational from Asian empires and the Habsburgs in having a larger core units in the 20th century--the Ottomans in the Middle East, the of ethnic groups ready to fan out to the frontiers and establish Habsburgs in east central Europe, and the Russians-- Russia was able to help nation-states develop in these regions because of its willingness.

The prototypical nation-states of England and France were not cultur, but they had pockets of minorities who were different from the majority culture.

During the reign of Ivan IV, British merchants established trading relations with Russia, selling manufactured products in exchange for furs and other raw materials.

Moscow and other Russian centers were established by Basil's merchants.

The magnificent royal palace in Moscow was designed by Italian artists and architects.

The ornate, onion-shaped domes that became characteristic of Russian churches were created by foreign architects who modified Renaissance styles to take Russian building traditions into account.

By the 16th century, a tradition of looking to the West for emblems of upper-class art and status was beginning to emerge, along with some reliance on Western commercial initiative.

Ivan IV did not have an heir.

A member of the Romanov family was chosen as tsar in 1613.
Although many Romanov rulers were weak, the Time of Troubles did not affect the power of tsarist rulers.

The first Romanov, Michael, was able to reestablish internal order.

He resumed the expansionist policy of his predecessors after driving out the foreign invaders.
The war against Poland brought part of the Ukraine to Russia.
Russia's boundaries were expanded to meet the Ottoman empire.
The icon from the 15th was beginning to have new diplomatic implications as Russia encountered other established century.
Governments were used in the Russian icon tradition.

He wanted to rid the church of many superstitions and errors that had become more naturalistic.

State control over the church was resumed by his policies.

Russians who were exiled to Siberia or southern Russia refused to accept the activities of the church.

Serf runaways were punished harshly.

The great serf southern Russia was put down by Russian colonization in 1670 after they revolted against landlord control.

The standards of the West and the great Asian civilizations were the focus of westernization.

Peter's predecessors' policies were extended to large segments of the Russian population.

He wanted to change certain aspects of the Russian economy and culture by imitating Western forms.

Peter wanted to further tsarist power and enhance Rus sia's military strength.

The wars with Sweden convinced him that new departures were necessary.

Peter the Great was a great leader.

Peter was a 6 feet 8 inches tall and ruled from 1689 to 1725 without making his country fully Western.

He found little enthusiasm for the crusade against Turkish power.

He brought a lot of culture and scores to Russia with the help of Western artisans.

Peter the Great only allowed his country one year of peace.

He changed the form of his government for the rest of the reign.
He established hisWindow on the West on the southern shores of the Baltic Sea, where he founded the new city of St. Petersburg.

Peter was an autocrat in politics.

He put down revolts against his rule and executed some of the ringleaders.
He seized on the currents in the West at this time, ignoring the parliamentary features of Western centers such as Holland.

Peter used the Russian state as a reform force to show that the state could change the habits of the wealthy.

Peter extended an earlier policy of giving bureaucrats noble titles to reward their service to bureaucratic service.
The state was freed from its dependence on officials from the aristocracy.

Peter created a fighting force that could put down militias.

He set up a secret police to monitor the bureaucracy.
He went far beyond the bureaucratic control impulses of the Western world at that time.
Peter's Chancery of Secret Police was re-established after 1917 by a revolu tionary regime that worked to undermine key features of the tsarist system.

Peter's foreign policy had many well-established lines.

He did not win many victories when he attacked the Ottoman empire.

Russia had a port on the sea.

Russia became a major factor in European military and diplomatic alignments.
The tsar moved his capital from Moscow to a new city in the Baltics.

Peter focused on improvements in political organization, economic and cultural change.

He tried to simplify Russia's bureaucracy by using Western principles.
He developed specialized bureaucratic departments while creating a more well-defined military hierarchy.
He improved the army's weaponry and created the first Russian navy.
The old noble councils were completely eliminated by him.
Peter's ministers revised the tax system with taxes on ordinary Russian peasants increasing steadily.
One way to bring talented non-nobles into the system is by establishing new training institutes.

Peter's economic efforts focused on building up mining and metallurgy industries, using Rus sia's iron holdings to feed state-run facilities.

Peter's reforms changed the Russian economy without developing a large commercial class.

Serf labor was used to staff new manufacturing operations.

Russia's internal economic means allowed it to maintain a large military presence for almost two centuries.

The first freeholders must be taught mathematics and geometry.

The document showed a distinct Russian of His Imperial Majesty.

Fees should not be collected from traditions.
When they have mastered the material, they should not put it into practice, and the document should be written in their own handwriting.
When Russia's rulers are released after being banned as traitors by Catherine's successor, the students need to pay one ruble each for fear of Western influence.

They shouldn't be allowed to marry or receive marriage certificates if they don't have these certificates.

Russia is a European state.

The Alterations which Peter the Great undertook, as a penalty for evasion, establish a rule that no one will in Russia succeeded with the greater ease.

Manners, which prevailed at that time, and had been all prelates to issue no marriage certificates to those who are introduced amongst us by a mixture of different Nations, ordered to go to schools.

People were found at that time.

There is only one Authority that can instill this Maxim into all the Sovereign and that is the one who can act Earth, and that is the one who can create their own people.

We have a Vigour that is proportional to the Extent of such a large think and we are proud of it.

God is vested in the person who rules over it.

The Dispatch of Affairs should be more just after this Legislation is finished and should be sent from distant parts.

Laws would be frustrated.

I do not wish to survive any other form of government.

It is better to be subject to the # than to be subservient to it.

Peter wanted to make Russia culturally respectable.

The symbol of corruption in Russia is the transfer of male power over women.
Peter abolished this practice because he knew that women in the West had more freedom.
He encouraged upper-class women to attend cultural events and wear Western-style clothing.
He was supported by women as a result.

A source of embarrassment for Westerners in Russia was reduced by him.

He did not change gender relations among the Russian peasants.

Peter wanted to cut the Russian elite off from its traditions, to enhance state power, and to commit the elite to new identities.

Male nobles were required to shave off their beards and wear Western clothes in symbolic ceremonies.
The upper class was only involved in the change of traditional appearance.

Administrative training was supplemented by cultural change.

Serious discussion of the latest scientific and technical findings became common when Peter and his colleagues founded scientific institutes and academies.
Russia was built into a Western cultural zone and Western fads and fashions were easy to find in the new capi tal city.
Ballet became a Russian specialty after being encouraged in the French royal court.
Christmas trees came from Germany.

The Westernization effort has several features that can be compared with other societies later on.

The changes were limited.
The Great's order to his nobility to cut off their beards is the subject of a contemporary Russian cartoon.

Wage-labor spread in the West was not involved in new manufacturing.

The kind of worldwide export economy characteristic of the West was not on the agenda.
Emperor Peter the Great did not fold Russia into Western civilization completely.
There was no desire to abandon Russian goals.

The Westernization brought hostile responses.

The Russian tsarina resented the Westernized airs and expenses of their landlords, some of whom no longer even knew they ruled after the assassination of her hus Russian.

Peter's thirst for change was opposed by elements of the elite who argued that Russian traditions were superior to those of the West.
From this point forward, the tension continued to affect nobility and lead to important cycles of enthusiasm and revulsion service aristocracy by giving them to Western values.
The new power over peasantry was a key component of Russian development.

The weakness of tsardom encouraged new grumblings about Westernization and some new initiatives by church officials eager to gain more freedom to maneuver, but no major new policy directions were set.

Russian territorial expansion continued, with several battles with the Ottoman empire.
Peter III was the nephew of Peter the Great's youngest daughter.
One of the leaders of history is Catherine II.
She converted to the Orthodox faith after marrying the heir to the Russian throne.
She had a miserable life with threats of divorce from her husband.
She disliked her son.
The palace guard installed her as empress.
The tsar may have been killed with Catherine's consent.

The central monarch's powers were defended by Catherine.

She put down another peasant uprising, this time led by Emelian Pugachev.
Catherine's reign combined genuine reform interests with her need to consolidate power as a truly Russian ruler, which explains the complexity of her policies.

Catherine was a Westernizer like Peter the Great.

She explored the ideas of the Enlightenment, imported several French philosophers for visits, and established commissions to discuss new law codes and other Western-style measures.

The arts and literature were encouraged by Catherine.

Catherine's policies weren't always consistent with her image.

The trade-off between the nobility and their serfs had been developing over the previous two centuries in Russia.
The office was staffed by bureaucrats and officers, and it had Catherine the Great in it.
They were a service to the Roman goddess of wisdom, war, and the arts.

Newly ennobled officials were also accepted into their ranks.

Most of the administration over local peasants, except for those on government-run estates, was wielded by the noble landlords.
Catherine increased the punishments nobles could give their serfs.

Catherine encouraged leading nobles to tour the West and send their children to be educated there.

She tried to avoid political influ ence from the West.
Catherine was quick to close Russia's doors to liberalism after the French Revolution.
A small group of Russian intellectuals who advocated reforms along Western lines were silenced.
One of the first Western-inspired radicals, a noble named Radishev, who sought abolition of serfdom and more liberal political rule, was vigorously harassed by Catherine's police, and his writings were banned.

Catherine followed the tradition of Russian expansion with energy and success.

She began campaigns against the Ottoman empire again, winning new territories in central Asia.

The Russian-Ottoman contest was a major diplomatic issue for both powers.
Catherine encouraged further exploration of Russia's holdings in Siberia and claimed the territory of Alaska in Russia's name.
Russian explorers moved down the Pacific coast of North America into what is now northern California, where tens of thousands of pioneers spread over Siberia.

Catherine pressed Russia's interests in Europe, playing power politics with Prussia and Austria.

Russian interference in Polish affairs was increased by her.

Poland was eliminated as an independent state in 1772, 1793, and 1795, and Russia held the lion's independent state.

The basis for further Russian involvement in European affairs had been of Russian influence in eastern created, and this would show in Russia's ultimate role in putting down the French armies of Napoleon Europe.

From one decade to the next, expansion brought Russia into encounters with Europe, the ottoman empire, and East Asia.

The Russian nobility sparked recurrent social protest because of its great estates, local political power, and service to the state.

In Russia and eastern Europe, landed nobles were divided into two groups, one of which was made up of a minority of great magnates who lived in major cities and provided key cultural patronage, and the other of which was made up of smaller landowners who had a less opulent lifestyle.

The power of the nobility over the serfs increased during the 17th and 18th centuries.

Russian peasants had a legal position that was superior to that of their medieval Western counterparts.
After the expulsion of the Tatars, many Russian peasants fell into debt and had to give up their status as peasants in order to repay their debts.
They didn't own much of the land.
From the 16th century onward, the Russian government encouraged this process.
Serfdom gave the government a way to regulate peasants when the government didn't have the means to do so.
When new territories were added to the empire, the system of serfdom was extended.
The serfs' hereditary status was fixed by an act of 1649.
The serfs were tied to the land during the 17th and 18th centuries.

Serfs on eastern Europe's estates were taxed and even sold by their land lords.

Peter the Great encouraged the sale of whole villages as manufacturing labor in Russia.
Peasants were not slaves.
They used village governments to regulate many aspects of their lives, relying more heavily on community ties than their counterparts in the western countryside.
Most peasants were poor and uneducated.
They paid high taxes or obligations in kind, and they owed extensive labor service to landlords or the government, a source not only of agricultural production but also of mining and manufacturing.
The labor obligation increased steadily.
The legal situation of the peasantry deteriorated.
The government of the serfs was turned over to the landlords by Catherine the Great, even though she sponsored a few model villages to show her enlightenment to Western-minded friends.
Any serfs convicted of major crimes or rebellion were allowed to be punished harshly by landlords.
Half of Russia's peasantry was enserfed to the landlords by 1800, and the other half owed similar obligations to the state.

Russia was setting up a system of serfdom that was very close to slavery in that serfs could be bought and sold, gambled away, and punished by their masters.

Rural conditions in other parts of eastern Europe were the same.

Estate agriculture was maintained in Poland, Hungary, and elsewhere by Nobles.

This painting is from the early 20th century, when revolutionary currents were swirling in Russia and the status of the peasantry was widely discussed.

Issues of interpretation are raised by this.
The subject of the painting, tax collection and the poor material conditions of 17th-century peasants is valid for the 17th century, but the artist was also trying to score contemporary points.

In Russia, the nobility used the estate agricultural system to maintain their political power and their aristocracy, which was derived from command over land and people, not trade or commerce.

The focus stifled social mobility and the growth of the economy in the West.
There were few layers of Russian society between serfs and landlords.
95 percent of the population was rural.
There was no defined artisan class because the manufacturing took place in the countryside.
Non-noble bureau crats and professionals were encouraged by government growth.
Most of Russia's European trade was handled by Westerners posted to the main Russian cities and relied on Western shipping.

The nobility was concerned about potential social competition from both bureaucrats and businessmen and prevented the emergence of a merchant class.

The majority of the population was composed of enserfed farmers who had little opportunity for social or economic development.

Eastern Europe's growing economic subordination to the West was caused by the intensification of estate agriculture and serf labor pursued by the nobility.

Grain surpluses were purchased by Western merchants to feed the growing cities of western Europe.
In return, Western merchants brought in manufactured goods, including luxury furnishings and clothing.
The dependence on Western markets and reliance on serf labor to produce export goods should be compared to patterns in Latin America.
Russia was being drawn into the world economy as a food and raw materials producer, dependent on cheap labor, an example of growing regional inequalities in the global system.

Russia's social and economic system worked well.

It was able to support a state and empire.
Russia was able to trade in furs and other commodities with areas in central Asia outside of its borders, which meant that it was not completely focused on the West.
It changed the culture of the magnates.
Russia's population doubled during the 18th century to 36 million.
The world Shrinks by a harsh climate in most regions during the Early Modern Period.
There was no question that the economy had advanced despite famines and epidemics.

The system had important limitations.

Most agricultural methods were traditional, and there was little motivation among the peasantry for improvement because increased production usually was taken by the state or the landlord.
When it came to increasing production, landlords concentrated on squeezing the serfs.
The important extension developed under Peter the Great did not help manufacturing.

Russia's economic and social system led to protests.

By the end of the 18th century, a small but growing number of Western-oriented aristocrats such as Radishev criticized the regime's backwardness, urging measures as far-reaching as the abolition of serfdom.
The seeds of a radical intelligentsia would grow with time.
The recurring peasant rebellions were still significant.
Russian peasants were politically loyal to the tsar, but they harbored resentments against their landlords, who they accused of taking lands that were rightfully theirs.

Peasants destroyed manorial records, seized land, and sometimes killed landlords and their officials.

The Pugachev rebellion of the 1770s was the strongest of the Peasant rebellions from the 17th century onward.

The Cossack leader Emelian promised an end to serfdom, taxation, and military Pugachev attracted supporters by appealing to the abolition of the landed aristocracy.
The popular belief was that Peter III was still alive.
He led southern Russia until they were defeated.
Pugachev was brought to Moscow in a revolt that threatened Catherine's case and cut into quarters in a public square.
When the revolt was defeated, Pugachev highlighted the dependence of government and the upper class but did not end, as an example of other protest.
The peasants were barely able to work their own plots of land.

The whole of eastern Europe was not included in Russian history after the 15th century.

There was a borderland between western European and eastern Euro pean influences.
Growing trade with the West sparked new cultural exchanges in the Balkans under Ottoman rule, as Greek merchants picked up many Enlightenment ideas.

Poland and the Czech and Slovak regions are examples of areas that are fully within the Western cultural sphere.

The Scientific Revolution was started by the Polish scientist Copernicus.
In Hungary, the currents of the west and the east mirrored each other.

Many smaller eastern European nationalities lost political independence during the early modern era.

Hungary became part of the Habsburg empire after being freed from the Ottomans.
The empire took over the Czech lands.
Prussia pushed eastward into Poland.

Poland's decline was striking.

Poland, formed in 1386 by a union of the regional kingdoms of Poland and Lithuania, was the largest state in eastern Europe.
The Polish cultural life was linked with the West through Roman Catholicism.
Economic and political setbacks mounted by 1600.
The Polish people were charged with electing the king.
In Russia, the merchant class was lacking.
Russian emergence on the European as well as the Books of the Polish Nation Eurasian stage were highlighted by the eclipse of Poland.

Alaska, and even to Hawaii, hint at an even larger role.

Russia's emergence as a key grains and raw materials supplier to Western Europe was significant, but it did not seek a leading commercial role.
The Early Modern period was during the 20th century.
Russia spans ten time zones and has a different kind of empire from those that Western nations had, but it had a huge impact.
By this point, Russia was affecting diplomatic and military success shared many features with the land-based Asian empires developments in Europe, the Middle East and east Asia.
It gained features that would contribute to its hold in central Asia.

Did Russia become part of Western civilization by the 18th?

The role of 5 was affected by Russian conquests in Central Asia.