Section B.5 Electric Circuits
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voltage (V ) is given by Ohm’s law, which is V IR
(B.2)
Materials that present a very small resistance to current flow are called conductors. Materials with a very large resistance are called insulators. A flowof current through a resistor is always accompanied by power dissipation aselectrical energy is converted to heat. The power (P) dissipated in a resistor isgiven by P I2R
(B.3)
The inverse of resistance is called conductance, which is usually designated bythe symbol G. Conductance is measured in units of mho, also called Siemens.
The relationship between conductance and resistance is
G 1
(B.4)
R B.5.2 Capacitor C) is measured in farads. The relation between thestored charge (Q), and the voltage across the capacitor is given by Q CV
(B.5)
In a charged capacitor, positive charges are on one side of the plate, and negative charges are on the other. The amount of energy (E) stored in such aconfiguration is given by E 1 CV 2
(B.6)
2
FIGURE B.5 A simple capacitor.


292
Appendix B Review of Electricity B.5.3 Inductor inductor is a device that opposes a change in the current flowing throughit. Inductance is measured in units called henry.
B.6
Voltage and Current Sources
Batteries are based on chemical reactions that result in a separation of positiveand negative charges within a material. Generators produce a voltage by themotion of conductors in magnetic fields. The circuit symbols for these sourcesare shown in Fig. B.6.
B.7
Electricity and Magnetism
1. An electric current always produces a magnetic field at a direction perpendicular to the current flow.
2. A current is induced in a conductor that moves perpendicular to a magnetic field.
3. An oscillating electric charge emits electromagnetic waves at the frequency of oscillation. This radiation propagates away from the sourceat the speed of light. Radio waves, light, and X-rays are examples ofelectromagnetic radiation.
FIGURE B.6 Circuit symbols for a battery and a generator.
Appendix C
C.1
Geometric Optics geometric optics.
The speed of light depends on the medium in which it propagates. In vacuum, light travels at a speed of 3 × 108 m/sec. In a material medium, thespeed of light is always less. The speed of light in a material is characterizedby the index of refraction (n) defined as n c
(C.1)
v
where c is the speed of light in vacuum and v is the speed in the material.
When light enters from one medium into another, its direction of propagationis changed (see Fig. C.2). This phenomenon is called refraction. The relationship between the angle of incidence (θ1) and the angle of refraction (θ2)
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Appendix C Review of Optics FIGURE C.1 Light rays perpendicular to the wave front.
is given by sin θ1 n2
(C.2)
sin θ2 n1 The relationship in Eq. C.2 is called Snell’s law. As shown in Fig. C.2, someof the light is also reflected. The angle of reflection is always equal to theangle of incidence.
In Fig. C.2a, the angle of incidence θ1 for the entering light is shown to be greater than the angle of refraction θ2. This implies that n2 is greater thann1 as would be the case for light entering from air into glass, for example(see Eq. C.2). If, on the other hand, the light originates in the medium ofhigher refractive index, as shown in Fig. C.2b, then the angle of incidenceθ1 is smaller than the angle of refraction θ2. At a specific value of angle θ1called the critical angle (designated by the symbol θc), the light emerges tangent to the surface, that is, θ2 90◦. At this point, sin θ2 1 and, therefore,sin θ1 sin θc n2/n1. Beyond this angle, that is for θ1 > θc, light originating in the medium of higher refractive index does not emerge from themedium. At the interface, all the light is reflected back into the medium. Thisphenomenon is called total internal reflection. For glass, n2 is typically 1.5,and the critical angle at the glass-air interface is sin θc 1/1.5 or θc 42◦.
Transparent materials such as glass can be shaped into lenses to alter the direction of light in a specific way. Lenses fall into two general categories:converging lenses and diverging lenses. A converging lens alters the directionof light so that the rays are brought together. A diverging lens has the oppositeeffect; it spreads the light rays apart.
Using geometric optics, we can calculate the size and shape of images formed by optical components, but we cannot predict the inevitable blurringof images which occurs as a result of the wave nature of light.

