Chapter 7

Our understanding of behavior is enhanced by our knowledge of Biological theories.

Two related topics, motivation and emotion, will help us understand complex behaviors.

The brain plays a key role in regulating emotions.

The last part of this chapter shows how the cognitive evalua Relating Emotions and Behavior: tion affects our emotional responses.

Some examples are easier to explain.

We know why Jessica and Susan ate and drank water.
The Gender Effects explanations are not as straightforward when it comes to training for a marathon.

The motivation is a hypothetical state.

We can't see or touch the Language of Emotion, but we can infer it from observable behaviors.
Two rats have learned to press a lever to get food in a Skinner box.
The lever-press response may be triggered by the sight of the cage.
Thehunger is an equally important factor and may influence the rats' behavior.

This question may be answered by the third and final aspect of our definition.

If we learned that the first rat had not been fed for 12 hours, then we could conclude that the second rat had not been fed for 6 hours.
The first rat is hungrier.

Several theories have been proposed to understand this complexity.

Biological theories focus on how the body works.

The unlearned behaviors that are part of the organism's repertoire are among these processes.
Bats use the same technology as radar to locate objects.
The sound of waves on the surface of the ocean can be used to release moths.

The stickleback fish has been studied to investigate reproductive and aggressive behavior.

There is a red spot on the belly of a male stickleback during the spring.
Tinbergen determined that the red spot was a releasingStimulus.
Male sticklebacks build tunnels.

There is no proof of such behaviors in humans.

It's difficult to rule out the influence of learning.
Attempts to explain human behavior with the concept of instincts failed, but psychologists continued their interest in the influence of biological factors on behavior.

John B. Watson wanted to understand the relationship between stimuli and responses.

Behaviorists believed that the head would evoke the same response every time, but this was not the case.

There are times when environmental stimuli remain constant, but an organ of the male on the left.

The activity level of female rats peaks every fifth source.

Permission was granted for this article to be reproduced.

Rats' behavior is influenced by an internal motivational state created by the estrus cycle.

More than one response can be activated by drives.

If food is hard to come by, a rat may try other ways to get food.
You can ask a friend for a loan, search your car for change, or check vending machines for change that people have forgotten.
The internal motivational state of hunger can drive your behaviors toward the goal of obtaining food.

The concept of drives was used by Clark Hull.

A lack of water is a cause of a drive.
The drive can be activated by learned ones such as lever pressing.

Let's go back to our opening scenario.

Because they were thirsty and hungry, Jessica and Susan ate and drank.
In both cases they were returning their bodies to a more balanced state of functioning that existed before they were thirsty or hungry.

Some theorists think that drive reduction is necessary for learning because behaviors that are after a hard workout are learned.

They will find a way to quench their thirst when a behavior results in drive reduction.

Habit strength, or ten dency, is high when a behavior is followed by drive reduction many times.

I don't want to achieve a goal that reduces hungry.

I will drive by satisfying the need.

The next time I'm hungry, there will be less responses.

When the drive is strong, it will prompt behaviors such as looking up at the helicopter or touching the work of art.

Frequency of these behaviors should increase in the future due to successful completion of these behaviors.

The definition and measure of a stimulus drive such as curiosity is not as straightforward as the definition and measurement of hunger.

In the experimentMcDaniel and Zuckerman did, participants were asked questions about how much they spent on sensation-seeking monkeys, as well as how much and what opening and closing they did.

They were involved in some types of gambling.
They found that people who participated in many sensation-seeking behaviors had more interest in gam curiosity drive.

Individuals with high sensation seeking and interest in gam bling sought out different types of gambling and switched games more often than others with lower levels of sensation seeking.

Think about the results of the study for a moment.

Before reading further, write down some possible answers.

The results suggest that we don't always seek to reduce stimulation as the drive reduction theory suggests; rather, experiencing change in stimulation is important.

Playing the same game all night was boring and a change in stimulation was satisfying.

Riding a roller coaster, singing in the shower, and changing radio stations are some of the ways in which stimulation can be sought.

The level of stimulation to which a person has become accustomed determines the optimum level of arousal or change.

In general, stimulation that is too far above or below an optimum level is unpleasant.

People in urban and rural areas have adapted to different levels of stimulation.

They rate sensory deprivation as more unpleasant than it is for urban people.

The theories of motivation help us understand our need for change.

Cognitive theories of motivation focus on how we process information.

You don't always eat to reduce a drive when you are hungry.

The body functions best when it comes to where you eat.
Individuals are thought to be thinking at a specific level of arousal, which is about, planning, and exercising control over their behavior.
The cognitive-consistency theories and the hierarchy of needs are the most prominent theories.

According to cognitive-consistency theories, we are motivated to achieve a psychological state in which our beliefs and behaviors are consistent.

Students who don't get around to studying need to achieve consistency between their thoughts and actions.
They may achieve consistency by deciding they are too tired to study.

It motivates us to reduce the discomfort because of cogni tive dissonance.

Our brains are compatible with one another.

You were told to pick one of the gifts.

You rate the items on a scale of 0 to 100.
It's easy to choose between a highly desirable gift and a less desirable gift.
It is more difficult to make a decision when there are two very desirable gifts.

Rejecting the second means choosing one gift.

The decision is easy when the second gift is less desirable.
Selecting which ates conflict is what was instructed to be done when choosing between equally desirable gifts.
Many people wonder about two gifts they would like to receive after a difficult decision has been made.
They had one gift that was low and they had to make a decision.

Dissonance can happen in situations other than choosing.

The dangers of the choice were more difficult for smokers.
They may look for reports that support their smoking behavior, or they may choose to focus on people who have smoked for decades with no apparent ill effects.
An observational study of men who regularly spent time at a cigar shop engaged in con positively was rated more observational than a rejected gift study.
All of them were rated negatively.

They crafted arguments to refute the medical research findings and to insulate themselves from the impact of antismoking messages, thus reducing their cognitive dis sonance when they lit up.

When your political beliefs are challenged, consider your reaction.

The people who hold similar opinions to yours agree.

The phenomenon of cognitive dissonance is also found in group settings.

When individuals find that their opinions are at odds with those of the group, they are likely to try to reach a consensus by persuading others, changing their own positions to match those of the group, or joining a group with attitudes that are con sistent with their own.
We try to increase cognitive consonance either by changing our beliefs or behaviors, in all of these examples.

We can't explain the motives of all of them.

You save money and drive it.

Incentives help explain why behavior is not explained by other biological drives.

You just finished eating lunch in the caf eteria.
As you walk through the student center building, you can smell the distinctive aroma of popcorn because you are full and no longer hungry.
You decide to buy a bag.

According to drive-reduction theories, our biological drives push us towards our goals.

The larger or more powerful the incentive, the stronger the pull, according to incentive theories.

Satisfying basic survival needs such as hunger and thirst are some of the strongest motives.

Before safety needs can be satisfied, there are five needs to be met.

Safety needs are satisfied by a stable job, insurance, and financial reserves.
There are a few people who leave space between each other.
We all want to become the very best car.

Only a small number of people achieve self-actualization because of our struggle to satisfy needs that are lower in the hierarchy.

You may want to be the best office manager, but the pressures to conform to company procedures and your desire to do activities that are more recognized and compensated may limit your abilities to develop yourself.

Before an individual can focus on needs at the next higher level, needs must be satisfied.

Pearson Education, inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, printed of worth and competence, self and electronically reproduced by permission of esteem and respect of others.

We might think that prisoners in nazi concentration camps would be motivated by their survival needs based on Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

When we are forced to confront lower-level needs again, our growth as individuals affects how we behave.

Many prisoners in Nazi concentration camps gave their lives for others, even though they were only concerned with survival.

Critics note that not everyone goes through the hierarchy.

Biological theories of motivation focus on the importance of achieving a psychological state in which one's thoughts of biological processes determine motivation.

He will double the payments on the car loan to make it easier to pay it off.

Birds build their homes in the spring.

You stay up late to watch a movie.

You only have $100 left in your paycheck.

Pay your rent.

Purchase a new pair of jeans.

He likes sports cars but they are expensive so he buys a family car.

We have focused on a theoretical overview of motivated behavior up to this point.

The theories try to give insight into all the motivation behind the behavior.

Specific motives and the big picture of theoretical overviews are what psychologists are interested in.
There are three specific motives: hunger, sex, and achievement.

Drive theories of motivation think that hunger is a need that pushes us to do certain things in order to survive.

The attractive properties of the food we plan to eat are stressed by incentive theories.
According to incentive theories, we live to eat.
There are still questions about hunger that need to be answered regardless of which motivational theory you agree with.

Blood sugar is an important hunger signal according to an early explanation for hunger.

When the cells of the body are able to use it, hunger is low.
Hunger increases as the blood sugar supply decreases.

The amount of stored fat serves as a hunger signal.

A hunger signal is sent to the brain when a person's weight falls.

No signal is sent when fat cells are full.

The brain structure that receives hunger signals is the hypothalamus.
The surgical removal of two areas of the hypothalamus in rats yielded different results.
Lesions in the hypo thalamus reduced food intake.
The removal of the ventromedial does not create an animal that will be able to eat until it dies.
The animals become quite obese, but their weight eventually goes back to normal.
The parts of the hypothalamus that are important in deferring eating behavior are part of a very complex system.
A bundle of nerve fibers that passes close to the hypothalamus is important in regulating hunger and how much sugar is burned.

The regulation of hunger and body fat is more complex than was thought.

Ameri had a major problem obtaining sufficient amounts of vitamins and minerals.

There are problems with the food we consume.
The United States has a high burden of preventable illnesses and premature deaths.
The surgeon general of the United States.
300,000 deaths per year are attributable to overweight and obese people, and the risk of death increases with increasing weight.

Being overweight or obese is associated with several types of cancer.

The study found that overweight and obese people were more likely to die from cancer than people of normal weight.

According to the National Center for Health Statistics, overweight and obese people are implicated in 4 of the top 10 causes of death in the United States.

The cost of overweight and obese people in the United States in 2000 is estimated.

Chapter SeVeN cost $117 billion in medical expenses and lost productivity.

There are more than 1.5 billion overweight people worldwide, and at least 300 million of them are obese.
An estimated 43 million children under the age of 5 are overweight.

They didn't know where the next meal was coming from.

It required a lot of physical energy to get food.

Those who ate as many calories as possible were favored by evolution because they had the energy to survive and pass on their genes to the next generation.

But times have changed.
James Hill is a nutrition researcher at the University of Colorado.
Food is always available.
We have 3,800 calories available per person per day in the United States, yet we need Supersizing.
We increased our daily intake of calo by 500 per day between 1984 and 2000.
We tend to eat out more often and much more for a wide variety of products.

While we are consuming more calories, we are consuming less.

According to the CDC, about 34% of adults in the United States larger today than in 1894 engage in less than 30 minutes of exercise on a daily basis.

Excess calories that are not burned can turn into pounds.

Most people wonder how their weight compares with other people.

Before reading further, write down your answer.
There is a ratio of weight to height.
The number represents your height and weight without regard to gender.
Increased risks for hypertension, cardiovascular disease, Type II diabetes, and sleep apnea are associated with elevated body mass index.
Body weight alone is not a good predictor of disease risk.
Competitive athletes and body builders with large amounts of muscle tissue tend to have a high body mass index, which is not a good measure for everyone.
Their disease risk is overstated by their body mass index.
Women who are pregnant or lactating, children, and frail and sedentary individuals should not use the body mass index.
The cross section of your height and weight can be found on Table 7-1.
Although the exact cutoffs thattrigger recommendations to lose weight are still debated, the NHLBI guidelines are: overweight, 25-29.9; obese, 30 or greater.

There is a lot of evidence to support such statements.

A survey shows that 16% of children and adolescents are overweight.

When identical adult twins are raised apart, there are high correlations between their weights.

The evidence shows that the influence of genetics on weight is significant no matter how we measure it.

The risk of being overweight in the family is clear.
If one or both of the adolescents is overweight or obese, the risk of becoming overweight or obese increases to 80%.

Families of extremely obese individuals have a higher risk of being obese.

It seems that heredity is involved in what we weigh.

The amount of body fat varies from person to person.
20% to 25% of body weight is fat in women and 15% to 18% in men.
Obese people have more fat cells than normal-weight people.
Under unusual circumstances, the number of fat cells in our body does not change, even though we are adults.
When cells swell to hold more fat, they don't need much energy to maintain themselves.

The majority of the body's energy needs are represented by BMR.

Males tend to have more muscle and less fat than females.

Fat uses less energy than muscle.

We lose muscle mass as we get older.
Extra pounds can be added each year after age 35.

We should consider social and cultural factors if we want to fully understand why we are obese.

Once fat cells have expanded, they are easy to maintain.

Women who are obese are related to social class.

42% of women living in poverty are obese.
It is now known that most people who are obese are not low income, a shift from previous trends that showed obe sity to be most common in low-income populations.
Culture is thought to be a factor in the high rates of obesity in different countries.
In China, Japan, and certain African countries, the rates of Obesity are less than 5%.

The importance of social networks has been found in research.

Researchers looked at whether one person's weight gain influenced another person's.
Social networks had effects on individual scores.

Our culture wants books, drugs, and programs to make us fit, healthier, and slimmer.

Conflicting guidance on what we should and should not consume is offered by the diet.
There is a high rate of dieting among children and adolescents, which seems to reflect unhappiness with one's body.
The body does not treat all calories the same.
A gram of carbohy drates has 4 calories, whereas a gram of fat has 9 calories.
The high-fat diet requires less calories for digestion than the high-carbohydrate diet.

It is dif ficult to remove fat from the body because few calories are needed to maintain it.

Losing water and cutting calories early on in a diet can lead to weight loss.

The drastic reduction in calories is unlikely to last, and the weight is likely to return.
You change your behaviors.

3 mph is based on the American Heart Association.

This adjust ment may reflect our evolutionary heritage as an attempt to conserve energy by reducing the rate at which calories are consumed by the body.

In the past a change like this would help people prepare for a famine.
It may become more difficult to lose weight.
Losing a pound of fat takes a long time.

Losing weight requires patience and lifestyle changes.

Do not be discouraged if you are having trouble losing weight.
You should be realistic about the amount of weight you can lose and the chances of keeping it off.

The two disorders we will focus on are potentially life threatening eating disorders.

People with this disorder deny their hunger due to an intense females fear of becoming fat or gaining weight.

"For them, food is an enemy--a of becoming fat leads to selfstarvation and weight loss threat to their sense of self, identity, and autonomy" (Hales, 2001, p. 258).
Their self accompanied by a strong belief is not caused by a physical disease.
By definition they maintain a that one is fat despite objective body weight that is less than 85% of their expected weight, often by exercising com evidence to the contrary.

It burns calories if you engage in physical activity.

Weight control requires lifestyle change and not a diet.

The percentage of calories derived from fat should be reduced.

It's a good idea to reduce the cues that make you want to eat.

Don't shop on an empty stomach and store food out of sight.

Positive physical and psychological benefits of weight loss can occur at levels above a proposed ideal weight.

Adding spices to reduced-fat meals will increase the effectiveness of diet without increasing calories.

Family members and friends are encouraged to join.

You can reduce your appetite by eating a piece of fruit.

Not all sugars are bad for us.

A lack of calcium in the bones can cause stressFractures that may occur while simply walking.

Cardiac arrest can be caused by altered levels of potassium and sodium.

Anoremia is associated with depression, low self-esteem, bulimia nervosa, and obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Their body image is distorted after they lose so much weight that their bones protrude.
5% of victims starve themselves to death.

Young women between the ages of 13 and 20 are most likely to have Anorexia nervosa.

The disorder affects less than 10% of men and less than 1% of women.

Over the 20th century, the number of cases of the eating disorder increased.
It was thought to only occur in Western cultures, but recent research shows that it is also found in non-Western countries.
Normal eating and weight gain are the first treatment objectives.

Approximately 50% of patients with an eating disorder can be treated as outpatients.

Individuals who suffer from an eating disorder need to develop insight into their negative feelings about their bodies and their behaviors.
Without this insight, a weight gain will most likely be a symptom of anorectic habits.

Young women with atypical age of onset is 15 to 18 are more likely to have bulimia.

She died of acute respiratory disease in November of 2010 due to her eating disorder.

During an episode, a feeling of lack of control is common.

Depression and guilt can set in and lead to self-destructive behaviors such as vomiting, excessive use of laxatives, or extreme exercise.

Vomiting can cause tooth decay by bringing stomach acid into contact with the teeth.

Alteration of the gag reflex so that it is triggered too easily or unintentionally is one of the medical problems.
There are scars and abrasions on the hands of bulimia sufferers.
In addition to a range of physical health problems, bulimia nervosa is also associated with an increased risk of anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and diabetes.
bulimic women are less likely to need hospitalization than anorectic women.
Their weight is usually within the normal range.

Sex is a powerful motive that can be seen in television, magazine, and newspaper advertising.

Sex is different from other biological motives such as hunger and thirst.
Food and water deprivation do not lead to a person's death, but sexual deprivation does.
Hunger and thirst areversive states that we want to reduce, while sexual arousal is a pleasurable state.

Sexual behavior in animals is controlled by pro grammed factors.

Write down your answers before you read further.

Human sexual behavior is different from that of many other organisms because of a complex interplay of genetic, prenatal, and environmental factors.

We can become aroused by a wide range of stimuli.
Some of the unusual sexual behav iors and arousal patterns that occur in humans but not in lower animals are described in this observation.

Male sexual responsiveness is linked to external stimuli.

The smell of a female dog when she ovulates is an external cue for sexual advances by male dogs.
There is a lot of speculation on the subject of human phero mones.
In the 70s, some researchers suggested that women living in close proximity were more likely to have their menstrual cycles synchronized.
There is no evidence to suggest that women actually do their men's strual cycles.
There has been no success in developing substances that produce a similar effect on humans.

There is a claim that the products act as pheromones.

"Buyer beware" is the best advice because there is no evidence that they work as advertised.

Internal factors such as hormones and brain mechanisms are important in determining sexual behavior.

There are two major sex hormones, testosterone and estrogen.

Many people think that men and women have different sex hormones, but both genders have measurable quantities.
Estradiol dominates in women while testoster dominates in men.

Sex hormones are important in directing sexual behavior in lower animals, but their role in directing human sexual behavior is less clear.

Although testos terone levels are related to sexual activity, castration may result in a decline in sexual desire in men.
Studies relating estrogen level and sexual interest have failed to detect a strong relationship between hormone level and activity.

The hypothalamus regulates sexual behavior as well as determining hunger and thirst.

In turn, these releasing factors increase the production of hormones in the body.
The male and female reproductive systems are stimulated by FSH and LH, respectively.
As the female's hormones decline, the stimulation of the hypothalamus is reduced.

A decrease in the production of hypothalamic releasing factors in men and women is caused by a reduction in sexually arousing external stimuli.

Sex drive is related to testosterone levels and is one of the factors controlling sexual behavior.

Kinsey, Pomeroy, and Martin conducted research on sexual behavior.

They found that the incidence of premarital intercourse, masturbation, and homosexuality was higher than had been thought.

The Kinsey surveys were criticized for not randomly selecting participants.

The Kinsey surveys were expanded and updated several decades ago.
More than 3000 randomly selected American men and women between the ages of 18 and 59 were surveyed by the University of Chicago's National Opinion Research Center.
80% of people contacted agreed to answer questions about their sexual behavior.

High levels of alcohol, fatigue, and illness can cause sluggish responses to the body.

Many body systems are involved in the sexual response.

Sexual involvement heightens our sense of touch.

Sexual arousal can affect the senses of vision and hearing.

During the plateau phase, arousal builds at a slower rate.

Before entering resolution, time orgasms.

Low Time respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure are all increasing.

Men rarely experience more than one orgasm during sexual intercourse, but women are capable of multiple orgasms.

Sexual arousal gradually decline during the resolution phase.

The resolution phase is extended if orgasm has not been experienced.

Most people experience a lack of interest in sexual activity, difficulty getting aroused, or problems getting to orgasm.

There are cases in which the difficulties in sexual functioning occur persistently, causing significant distress or problems for the individual or couple.
Sex drive is more common in women than in men, and is more likely among those with poor physical and emotional health.
The man's tendency to reach orgasm and ejaculate with minimal sexual stimulation before the man wants it to occur.

Masters and Johnson found that many sexual problems respond to psychological treatment.

Current treatments emphasize a cognitive-behavioral approach, which may serve as the sole treatment or as an alternative to medical or surgical intervention.
Therapists emphasize treating both partners in cases of sexual problems because they believe that couples, not individuals, have sexual problems.
The pleasures of touch may need to be reintroduced to the couple.

It is difficult to define achievement precisely, but most people know what it is and can give an exam to find two examples.

An example of achievement behavior is studying hard to get good grades.

The existence of an achievement motive has been proposed due to the prevalence of achievement oriented behaviors.

Incentives are used to explain achievement behaviors because they are directed toward attaining a pleasurable award or goal.

Academic achievement is one area of interest.

Maybe you are studying to become a psychologist because you want to one day.

The achievement goal orientation theory is one explanation for the different reasons for studying.

For many forms of achievement, personal satisfaction is important to the participants, and some achievements result in recognition in the form of praise, plaques, or ribbons.

Some theorists want to succeed while others want to avoid failure.

The difference between the two needs can be seen in the example of two students who both earn As in the same course.

The student is motivated to earn the A because of their pride in mastering the material.
The student who earns the A avoids the shame of failing or making a lower grade.

There is a correlation between achievement goal orientation and study strategy.

Students who are more mastery-motivated tend to use more effective study techniques.

Students who are more performance goal oriented tend to use less effective study techniques.
Students have a blend of achievement goal orientations.
It is rare for a student to be completely mastery-oriented; most will have some concern for their final grade in a course and hold some performance goals.
Students have different goals for different courses.
There are more performance goals in your general education requirements than there are in your major courses.
Student behaviors are both useful and destructive due to the topic of achievement motivation.

A person's levels are determined by their genetic factors.

Sexual beings.

Human mastery and performance goals can influence academic sexual behavior.

As we age, the rate of metabolism slows.

Maria is about to sing the aria for her recital.

Maria doesn't want anyone to see the ocean of perspiration that is soaking through her dress.

There is no joy associated with great art.

A vicious crime does not cause anger or disgust.
We don't experience love after the death of a loved one.
Without emotion, life would be like a meal in need of seasoning.
Emotions can help us survive.

Scientists used to consider emotion trivial and not worthy of study.

They argued that poets and philosophers should analyze emotions.

The rational part of human nature should be the focus of scientists.
They argued that emotions are the side of human nature that can disrupt rational thought.
An expanding body of research has focused on the what, why, and how of emotions, and this disregard of the emotional part of human nature has changed.

Stage fright can cause significant increases in heart rate, feelings of distress, and levels of hormones related to stress.

Maria's experience is similar to what happens when we face real threats such as losing a car on an ice-covered road or being mugged.

The study of emotions connects our present with the past.

The pupils of your eyes are dilated, your mouth is dry, and your heart is pounding.

The activity of the sympathetic branch of the nervous system prepares us for fight or flight.
In this state of heightened arousal, we perspire to cool down because we burn more energy than normal.
The parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system takes control of the body after this call to arms.
Spending extended periods of time in the aroused state that accompanies some emotions can have devastating effects on the body and health.

Tell us what you know about the term.

You decide that emotion is different from rational thought in that it is not the same as information we get through our senses or in our memory.
Emotions don't last long.

Humans and higher primate seem to frown; most animals bare their teeth during anger or rage.

Humans display similar facial expressions across cultures.

Darwin suggested that the expressions communicate information about events that help organisms adapt.

The ability to communicate fear of a predator is important to prey animals; emotions can also communicate a willingness to fight an enemy.

It is possible to increase the chances of survival by providing a readiness for actions that have helped us survive throughout our history.

Take anger as an example, it "intimidates, influences others to do something you wish them to do, makes an individual more aggressive, and places the participants in a conflict" (Plutchik, 2001, p. 348).
Fear drives blood to the large muscles, making it easier to run, and surprise raises eyebrows to collect more information.
Some gestures associated with emotional reactions may have descended from our human ancestors who did not have a well-developed spoken language.
Emotions warn us of danger, guide us to what is satisfying, and convey our intentions to others.

When her parents returned at about 1 a.m., they heard noises and thought they had caught a criminal.

Bobby Crabtree cautiously walked toward the bedroom.

Many people offer examples of cal activity if asked to provide a definition of emotion.

Our body's generalized arousal is the most visible sign of emotion to the person as well as to observers.
You can imagine what Bobby's body was going through as he made his way to confront the suspect.

It is not surprising that the first theoretical explanations of emotion focused on this component.

Next, we will look at these explanations.

The feelings you experience while listening to "The Star-Spangled feelings and Banner" are a result of the changes in your body.

The sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system is activated by the sounds of the music.
The sympathetic division sends impulses to the cortex to create an emotional feeling.
The changes in the body precede and produce the emotion.

Scientists know more about the cal changes associated with emotion than James and Lange did.

The James-Lange theory has several criticisms.
The case of Bobby Crabtree shows that sometimes we experience emotion before the body has time to react.
There is no doubt that arousal plays a part in emotion, but it doesn't always cause it.

Cannon believed that hormones were too slow to serve as the theory of the Cannon-Bard changes.

How are they the same?

The James-Lange theory is not supported by this sequence of reactions.

Our emotional feelings are not dependent on bodily changes or a prior emotional feeling.

The Cannon-Bard theory can reconcile differences between the commonsense view and the James-Lange theory.

The Cannon-Bard theory places a lot of responsibility on the thalamus.
The thalamus must be able to interpret and relay the full range of both physical and emotional reactions.
The thalamus is not likely to be versatile.
The thalamus relays information, but other parts of the brain are required to fully comprehend it.

It may be difficult to distinguish one emotion from another, but some differences offer important clues.

People cry when they are sad, sometimes when they are happy, but almost never when they are angry or disgusted.

It has been difficult to find such evidence because emo tions last for a few seconds.

Researchers have to find a way to elicit an emotion before they can study it.
Students and actors followed instructions to create facial expressions in one method.
Pull your eyebrows down and look in the mirror.
Your upper eyelid should be raised.
Push your lower lip up and press your lips together.
You have shown anger.
The researchers recorded the autonomic nervous system index while the participants held their expressions.

This type of research shows that there are different emotions.

Anger tends to be associated with car diovascular changes.
The heart rate decreases with disgust.
Fear is associated with lower blood pressure, cooler surface temperature, and less blood flow to the body's peripheral areas.
When we talk about anger, we use phrases such as "blood boiling" and "hot under the col lar", but not when we talk about disgust or happiness.
The cooler skin temperature associated with white with fear is reflected in the description.

Robert and his colleagues traveled to western Sumatra in Indonesia in 1992 to study a society with a female-oriented organization.

The society emphasizes external aspects of emotion and forbids public displays of anger.
There were similarities and differences between the Minangkabau and Americans.
Young male participants who posed the facial expressions of emotions had the same differences found in Americans.
The posed faces cause changes in the body that are prewired and culture-free.

The sensory signals from facial muscles did not produce the same feelings in Americans.

It is possible to observe patterns in certain emotions which can lead to blushing.

Everyone will give you feedback after watching your speech.
When you see your image on the screen, your cheeks, ears, neck, and upper chest fill with blood, making your skin hot.
It is possible that blushing in darker-skinned people will not be seen by others.

Darwin thought blushing served no purpose, but it may communicate the message that the person values the positive regard of others.

Most people blush, but those who are especially concerned with how others view them are more prone to blush.
Threats to one's public image, such as being made to look incompetent, are strong elicitors of blushing; simply being the center of attention, however, may be sufficient to cause some people to blush.

We know that certain emotions occur in people all over the world, but some differences in their reactions may be due to cultural influences.

In the United States and other countries that encourage age individuality, emotional expressions tend to last longer and are more intense.
Researchers failed to find differences between Chinese Americans and Mexican Ameri cans in their emotional responses to an acoustic startle to produce a strong defensive response.
The Mexican culture has been portrayed as valuing free and open expression of emotion, whereas the Chinese culture has been portrayed as being moderate.
Whether the noise presented was anticipated, unexpected, or anticipated with instructions to modify one's emotional response made no difference.

There are questions about which parts of the nervous system are important.

The brain plays a key role in most of our behaviors.

The cortex of primate is larger than that of lower animals.

There are more options following emotional arousal.
A rabbit that is being chased by a predator has few responses to its deathly fear, either it runs faster than ever, or it loses the race and its life.
The human cortex has many options: run, fight, dial, and so on.

The limbic system is the most important part of the brain.

The main function of the campus is in processing memories.

The fight-or-flight response can be triggered by the amygdala, according to Joseph LeDoux.

Bobby Crab tree's rapid response in firing his gun helps us understand this sequence of brain activity.
LeDoux focused on fear because it occurs across cultures and in many species and plays a key role in some psychological disorders.
LeDoux applied an electric shock to the rats' feet while playing a tone.

You receive a mild electric shock when you hear a tone.

Before reading further, write down your answer.

When the tone was sounded again, the ani mals froze and their blood pressure and heart rates went up.

The rats were afraid of the tone.
LeDoux traced the nerve impulses that carried sound from the ear to the thalamus.
The information went from the thalamus to the cortex and then to the amygdala.

There are different paths of information related to fearinducing stimuli.

Relaying this determination to the amygdala causes an increase in heart rate and blood pressure.

Failing to respond to danger is more costly than responding to a benign stimulation.

There is more information about the amygdala's role in emotions.

When human participants were taught to associate a visual cue with shock, they showed increased blood flow to the amygdala.
Patients with damaged amygdala rated faces with negative expressions as more trustworthy than faces with positive expressions.
There is no doubt that the amygdala plays an important role in emotions.
The range of emotions for which the amygdala plays a role seems to expand at a rapid rate; recent research indicates that the amygdala is activated while viewing pictures depicting sadness.

The entire brain plays a role in emotion, but subcortical areas are involved in fear.

Right-hemisphere damage can leave victims emotionally indifferent, which has been noted by physicians, clinical neu ropsychologists, and relatives of people who have suffered brain damage.
There is research on brain activity during emotional expressions.

Patients with right-hemisphere damage can't see emotional signals from others.

The speaker's tone of voice or angry facial expression are not detected by these people.

Patients with right-hemisphere disease have a harder time processing facial expressions than patients with left-hemisphere damage.

The right hemisphere is used to seeing emotion from facial expressions.

There is increased activity in the right hemisphere of the person when they report a negative emotion such as fear or disgust.

The left and right hemispheres can be used for approach and withdrawal processes.

Some people have difficulty expressing their emotions and understanding the feelings of others.

These people find it difficult to maintain relationships because of their lack of emotional responsiveness.
The word refers to a lack of words to describe feelings.

People with this condition may be smart and successful.

They are comfortable talking about non-emotional issues.
Individuals with alexithymia have a hard time talking about their emotions and can have a negative impact on their social interactions.

People with alexithymia lack self-awareness, are described as color less and bland, and are not able to discriminate between different emotions.

They don't know what other people feel.
They don't differ from others in the number of words used to describe their dreams, but their dreams are rated less fantastic.
Men who come from families with little positive communication and few models for expressing emotions are more likely to have alexithymia.
Their character istics are stable over time.

A clear case has not been made for either environmental or genetic factors, according to two studies.

It would be a huge boost to the police if they could attach electrodes to a suspect, ask questions, and determine if the person was deceptive.

Lie detection is based on the idea that a specific change in the body's chemistry tells us that a person is not telling the truth.
The electronic device was conceived in 1915 by William Marston, who wanted to create an electronic device that could sense and record several parameters, including blood pressure, heart rate, respiration, and galvanic skin response.
There are computerized scoring systems that interpret results.

Police often use lie detectors to clear suspects, to verify witness statements, or to find new leads, despite the fact that most state and federal courts prohibit testimony based on lie detectors.

Half of the guilty people defeated the polygraph test by using a galvanic skin response.

It is difficult to detect the use of countermeasures, which is a serious problem for examiners.

Imagine being "hooked up" to a polygraph.

An examiner wants you to tell the truth when he walks into the room.

Polygraph tests have been viewed as an invasion of privacy and have been criticized on ethical, le gal, and scientific grounds.

The basic premise is faulty and a specific lie response does not exist.

If you were hooked up to a polygraph, you could react in any of these ways.

Errors can result when we try to measure deception directly.

Critics note that polygraphs can have a high degree of accuracy, but that examiners often had access to information beyond the polygraph, which could improve accuracy.

Efforts to identify guilty persons will identify some honest people as de ceptive, and some critics describe the number of errors as "substan tial" Some individuals identified as having psychopathic tendencies seem to be able to avoid detection by polygraph examina tions because of their reduced GSR.

The hope is that we can find a way to identify deception.

The search for technology has intensified because of the concern about national security.
Researchers used fMRI to find increased activity in brain areas associated with attention as well as areas that initiate voluntary movement.
Warming around the eyes is a facial change that is thought to accompany deception.

Chapter SeVeN is based on reaction time, which can be measured electronically.

College students who were asked to commit a fake crime by logging on to a university computer and sending another suspect a message were identified by longer reaction times to key words relevant to the crime.
98% of participants were correctly classified as guilty or not guilty when asked to avoid detection of critical knowledge.

This idea will be further tested on populations other than college students.

This technique uses brain waves in search of event-related potentials, a well-known phenomenon in brain research.

The examiner looks for the P300 brain wave, which appears about 300 milliseconds after a stimulation that holds some significance for the person.
The P300 wave is subject to some of the same polygraphs that have defeated traditional polygraphs as soon as a new technology was developed.

Emotions are important in describ ing our own emotions and the emotional reactions we see in others.

The lie detector is a result of the focus on the components.

We must consider other components of emotions to develop a more complete picture.

Emotional stimulation can be a result of anxiety, anger, or fear.

The failure to recognize changes in emotion.

His sentence is reduced by how researchers elicit emotional reactions in research.

We are likely to be in court when a person is happy.

All questions will be answered with one word answers.

Which is the most characteristic of a person who speaks during an examination.

He will ask difficult questions in order to collect himself and lie more effectively.

Your grandpa had a brain injury.

A bulletin board with a face on it.

The face plays a key role in commu nicating emotion.

There is evidence for the occurrence of facial expressions of emotion.

One emotion that is observed in babies is disgust.
It is possible that this expression evolved from sensory experiences that kept animals from eating spoiled food.
Disgust came under some voluntary control, and now facial expressions of disgust are responses to circumstances that have less to do with the taste of foods and a lot to do with reactions to moral offenses, foul language, or poor hygiene.

They found that people from Western and Eastern literate cultures associate similar emo tions with certain facial expressions.

Even people from an isolated preliterate culture in New Guinea were able to identify photographs of various emotions.
The meanings of facial expressions could not be learned through the media.
The study design was reversed and it was found that the people of New Guinea posed facial expressions that were understandable to Western observers.
It is easier for people to recognize emotions in people from their own culture than it is in people from other countries.

The rest of the body is involved in communicating emo tions, but much of the research has focused on the face.

static photographs have been used in research rather than dynamic portrayals of emotions.
In an intriguing study, researchers used videotaped expressions of emotions that were described in the literature of Hindu people of India some 2,000 years ago.
The hands were involved in these portrayals.
College students from the United States and India were able to identify the emotions above chance.
The evidence shows that there are universal emotions that are common across the globe.

No one has found people who smile when disgusted or overjoyed.

The findings support the idea that humans have wired templates for expressing different emotions.
It makes sense that there should be similarities.
Our brains, our bodies, our hormones, and our sense organs are all part of the same species.

The negative emotions have distinctive facial signals.

The facial expressions of positive emotions are more obscured.
It is likely that an emotion is positive without knowing it.

Anger, disgust, fear, hap pines, sadness, and surprise are all emotions.

The highest agreement is for facial expressions of happiness.
Some models of emotion suggest that there are more than six primary emotions, and there is disagreement about the universality of other emotions such as contempt, guilt, interest, and shame.
Researchers reported a high degree of reliability in identifying the emotion of pride, which participants distinguished from related emo tions such as happiness.
The expression of pride consists of a small smile, head tilted slightly back, and arms raised above the head.
When the expression was restricted to the head and shoulders, the recognition was reduced and it was not greater than chance.
The researchers discovered that children could recognize pride by the age of 4.

The brow and forehead, eyes, eyelids, and the lower face are some of the muscles that make up each emotion.

The raised cheeks, wrinkled nose, lower lip, upper lip, and lower eyelid are disgust.

Wrinkles in the middle of the forehead, eyebrows raised and drawn together, eyes open and tense, mouth open, lips drawn back tightly are all signs of fear.

Uplifted inner corner of the eyebrows; lowered upper eyelid; raised corners of the upper eyelid; downturned lips.

The eyes are open wide, the forehead is wrinkled, and the mouth is open.

Emotions shade into one another, making it difficult to agree on a specific emotion label.

The related fa cial expressions are related to each of the basic emotions and can be seen as variations within a family.

There is a questioning surprise, a dumbfounded surprise, and a dazed surprise.
60 facial expressions convey the intensity of anger, ranging from minor annoyance to uncontrollable rage.

Robert Plutchik has developed a visual vocabulary that allows him to talk about and compare emotions.

The eight basic emotions are joy, trust, fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, and anticipation.

These primary emotions are building blocks that can be combined to create something using his or her face, just as primary colors are combined to form different colors.

The result is a three-dimensional structure consisting of eight groupings of primary take turns, going through eight emotions in tiers representing degrees of intensity and purity.

If you are so angry that you are throwing things against the wall and screaming, you are in a rage, which is at the top of the anger section.

The emotions at the top level are pure and can be combined to create other feelings.

Combining fear and surprise yields awe, while contempt is a blend of anger and disgust.
A person may feel pulled in two directions at the same time if they experience fear and anger at the same time.

The emphasis was placed on Darwin's facial expressions.

According to the facial feedback hypothesis, facial expression affects emotional expression and behavior.

Darwin's views were based on speculation and conjecture.

If you agree to be a part of the experiment on motor activity, what will you do?

You have a pencil between your teeth.

A few minutes ago, you had to cross out some letters.
The humor in a series of car toons is being judged.
The task doesn't seem related to motor ability; humor is more emotional.
Think about the question, analyze the situation, and write down some answers.

College students were told that they were going to participate in a study of psychomo tor ability using parts of their body that they would normally not use for such tasks.

The students had pencils in their mouths and were working on writing tasks.
One group held their pencils with their lips, which prevented them from smiling.
The group held the pencils in their teeth.

If the facial feedback hypothesis is correct, students who held pencils in their teeth and could smile should have rated the cartoons funnier than those who held pencils in their lips.

The cartoons were funnier when participants held the pencils with their teeth than when they held the pencils with their lips.

This finding was confirmed by a second study.

Participants who held their faces in an expression of happiness while they read a story rated the story more positively than those who had angry faces.
The intensity of the emotion was influenced by the level of arousal and how long participants had been exercising.
Further credence to the findings can be found in the recent extension and replication of this research.
People who were asked to hold a pencil in their mouths to facilitate smiling reported more positive affect, and they also exhibited greater physiological arousal compared to those who held a pencil in ways that inhib ited smiling.
There are two different versions of this theory.
One says that manipulating facial muscles brings forth emotional experiences in all of its aspects, while the other says that feedback from the facial muscles affects the emotion's intensity.

Culture can influence the expression of certain emotions, even if they are universal.

The cultural norms tell us which emotions to display.
The Culturally specific rules for which to smile when the boss tells a joke only apply to the brave or independently wealthy.
These requirements or expectations can lead us to exhibit emotions that we don't actually feel, or that we don't feel at all.

A film about surgery was shown to male college students in Tokyo, Japan, and Berkeley, California.

A scientist dressed in a lab coat entered the room and sat down while the participants watched the film.
Students from both countries showed similar distressed expressions when they were alone.
They had similar feelings and responses.
The American students openly displayed their feelings when talking to the researcher, while the Japa nese students remained composed.
The Japanese are more sensitive to status differences than Americans, and their display rules discourage them from displaying negative emotions in the presence of higher status.
They did not show their emotions when the scientist was present, but they did show them when they were alone.

emo tional expression is influenced by differences in feelings of individualism or collectivism.

European American females self-reported feelings of individualism or collectivism and were videotaped viewing a video that provoked positive and nega tive emotions, first alone and then with the experimenter present.
There was no difference in the participant's expressed emotions when viewing the video alone.
The individualists did not change their expressions when the experimenter was present, but the collectivist participants did.

There are many examples of display rules.

The Utku Eskimos strongly condemn the feeling of anger, while certain Arab groups view a man's failure to respond with anger as disrespectful.
The perception of emotions in others is influenced by the display of rules.
When viewing faces of Americans or Japanese, Japanese people perceive less intense emotions.

Smiling is a social act and we rarely smile when we are alone.

It is a prominent social signal that we can see a smile 300 feet away.

It is possible for smiles to reflect enjoyment from amusement, pleasure, praise, or re lief.
A "mask ing smile" hides negative emotion, a "miserable smile" acknowledges a willingness to tolerate unpleasant circumstances, and a "false smile" is made to convince another that enjoyment is occurring.
The universal facial expression of happiness can be deceiving.

Think of a time you smiled when you weren't enjoying it.

Write down your answer before you read it.
People smile with their cheeks not their eyes when they put on a fake smile.
The orbicularis oculi, which wraps around the eye, is not voluntary control, so smiles of faked enjoyment do not affect it.
You understand why you can't smile for a picture.
The cheekbone is pulled up by the zygomatic muscles.

Paul Ekman shows the difference between a fake smile and a genuine smile.

Crow has a genuine smile.

Another example of the operation of display rules is provided by smiling.

You expect a smile from the clerk if you walk into a store in the United States.
In Korea, a smile is not the norm.

Korean business owners in the United States who fail to smile are often seen as hostile.

Imagine spending an hour with people who don't speak the same language.

Even if you don't speak their language, you can still learn a lot about them.

Your quizzical facial expression is a sign that you are experiencing doubt.

Tone of voice and posture can convey different information.

When a person claims to be fine but is crying, they are viewed differently than when they are smiling.
It can be a simple question.
A rising inflection is converted into a question.
The meaning of our words can be overshadowed by non-verbal cues.

In addition to facial expressions, we communicate messages about guard.

The "high five," handshakes, and putting a hand on a person's shoulder are some examples.

Communication that involves objects.

Chapter SeVeN is used to communicate a specific meaning.

There is general agreement on emblems for "I warn you" and "It's cold", although they may not have the same meaning across cultures.

Ask a restaurant server in southern Italy for something not on the menu and the likely response is not a side-to-side head shake but a quick upward head toss.

The "V for victory" sign was used by the prime minister of Great Britain during World War II.
It becomes a gross insult to change the gesture to the palm-back position.

They do not have specific meanings.

You can use illustrations such as waving your arms or pounding a table, but they are not alone.
Illustra tors draw a picture or point it out.
The intensity of emotion is communicated by gestures such as shrugging.

They signal when a speaker is ready to listen and when a listener is ready to speak.

The handshake is the most common way to initiate an interaction.

The former President had a double peace sign.

Communication that involves fiddling with a pen or pencil.

When people become uncomfortable, the rates of Adaptors increase, although they have no specific meaning.

Tone of voice, rate of speech, pauses, sighs, loudness, emphasis, and even silence are just some of the words used in communication that are not expressions of expression.

Silence often accompanies sadness, shame, guilt, fear, and disgust.

Emotions are associated with the tone of voice.

The vocalizations increase in many emotions.
utterances associated with various emotions are usually presented at different intensity levels.
The differences allow us to recognize different emotions from the voice alone.
Fear is the second easiest emotion to recognize, followed by sadness and anger.

According to research, touch can communicate basic emotions such as anger, fear, disgust, and even complex emotions such as love, sympathy, and gratitude.

In the experiment, participants were grouped in pairs and sat opposite each other at a table with a black curtain blocking their view of each other.
A member of the pair was told to touch the other participant's arm in a way that expressed a series of emo tions.
The participants who were touched on the arm reliably detected some of the specific emotions that are comparable to emotion recognition via facial expressions.

One scene shows a man telling two different versions of his life.

The viewers are asked to decide which version is the truth and which version is a lie.
Women are more accurate than men in decoding emotion from the face, body, and voice.
The stereotype that women exhibit a greater degree of positive and negative emotions than men is supported by objective observations.

In one study, men and women were asked to describe their feelings to another person in 20 different scenarios.

For the degree to which emotion terms were used in describing self and others, the responses were scored.
Women displayed more emotional awareness than men.
The results were not due to differences in verbal ability between men and women.
Women report feeling powerless emotions such as sadness, whereas men report feeling powerful emotions such as anger.

One possible explanation is that women are expected to be nurturing and are often the primary caregivers in the family and workplace.

Men's typical roles are less likely to emphasize emotional responsiveness because they require sensitivity to others' needs.
A greater variety of emotions are displayed to and discussed with infant and preschool girls than boys.

There are possible differences between men and women when it comes to judging emotions from facial expressions.

Volunteers looked at the faces of a man and a woman to see if they were happy or sad.
Men and women were very good at judging facial expressions of happiness.
When they looked at sad faces, the results were different.
When judging sadness on women's faces, women correctly identified a sad face 90 percent of the time, while men correctly identified sadness on men's faces only 70 percent of the time.
It makes sense that men would need to be especially careful about their faces if they were to be attacked.

The model of how emotions can be with the culture has been offered by Robert.

Women's roles and occupations tend to require account for some cross-cultural differences in the expression of greater sensitivity to emotional expressions in others.

Men don't use the face to express emotion.

All over the world, emotional facial expressions are the same.

You have a pencil in your mouth.

You have a pencil in your mouth.

You are watching the movies.

You are watching the movies.

After leaving the theater, you find yourself laughing and happy.

Natural events such as thunder can elicit emotional responses.

These are some of the topics we are studying.

The words we use to describe our experiences are important.

The number of terms used to describe emotion varies from culture to culture.
English has a larger word pool than other languages.
More than 2,000 English words describe emotions, compared with 1,500 in Dutch, 230 in Malay, and 7 in the Chewong, a soci ety of hunter-gatherers living in the rain forest of Malaysia.

There are differences in the words used to describe emotions.

People in different cultures were asked to give free associations to the words under investigation.

Other languages have emotion words with no equivalents in English.

In English, apprehension, dread, horror, and terror are degrees of fear that a person feels.

English language distinction between shame and embarrassment is not made in Japanese.

If the same situation happened to another person, the response would not mean that the emotion is not represented by a single term, only that it could be quite different depending on culture.

In community-oriented cultures like Japan, emotions focus on the feelings of the people rather than the needs of the individual.

Language differences suggest that emotional experiences may be affected by how we think about events.

Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed a theory that focused on the evaluation of context as a factor in determining emotion.
If you remember from a previous section, early researchers believed that the emotional state we are in is caused by the physiologi cal state.
The scary movie will cause you to experience fear.
The labels we use to describe our emotions are dependent on our immediate environment and what we are thinking about.

You walk through the zoo and come across a large bear and her pups in the next enclosure.

You might have been busy talking to your friends, but you didn't expect to see this bear.
You laugh at your own surprise when you see a large animal.
If you had been walking through a forest and ran across a mama and her pups, this scenario would be the same.
You would be startled, but you wouldn't laugh at it.
This time you would be afraid.
It's silly to be afraid of a bear in a zoo, but it's necessary to be afraid of a bear in the wild.

The idea that the context of our situ ation is important to the emotion that we feel has been supported by lab experiments.

Chapter SeVeN was used to create changes similar to a genuine emotional reaction.
In order to hide the drug's effects, participants in the mental groups were told that they were getting a supplement called Suproxin.
Each participant was put in a room with a person who was either very angry or euphoric.
The control participants were not told what would happen.

The participants in the experimental group attributed their arousal to the presence of an emotional reaction.

The people who had interacted with the happy confederate said they were happy, while the people who had interacted with the angry confederate said they were angry.
The context in which an emotion is experienced plays a role in deciding which emotion is felt.

In the 1960s, several psychologists developed theories to suggest that emotions arise from the way we interpret or appraise our environment.

According to the appraisal theories, differences in emotion result from differences in how perceivers interpret their environment.
People will experience different emotions if they interpret their environment differently.
A person's interpretation of an event does not produce shame.
People see the situation differently.
The differences between appraisal theories and Singer's efforts are that they attempt to define the kinds of interpretation that contribute to different emotions.

Similar emotions appear in most cultures because events that occur are similar to appraisals of those events.

Observers distinguish between the expression and the knowledge of which emotions are likely to occur in a given situation.
Different cultures emphasize or de- emphasize certain emotions.
Two people from different cultures have failed in school.
It is not desirable to blame failure on lack of effort in one culture.
It is not desirable to blame failure on lack of abil ity in the other culture.
To suggest that failure is due to lack of effort can lead to shame or anger.
Lack of effort might be a socially acceptable excuse for failure in the second case.
The appraisal of events and the emo tions experienced are shaped by cultural values.

Others have argued that emotion does not need prior cogni tion; the two are basically separate.

We don't need cognitive appraisal in order to experience some emotional reactions because emotions precede a cognitive response in evolution.
The rapid fear response is one of the best examples of emotion without thinking.

Babies smile and show joy when confronted with familiar faces, such as the faces of people they know.

At about 3 months, there is a feeling of sadness due to the withdrawal of positive stimuli.

Early on, children learn that emotional expression is more than making faces and sounds; it requires timing, an understanding of context, and knowledge of the audience receiving the communication.

Most toddlers begin to work this out by the age of 2.
A child who is hurt while playing and starts to cry may stop and look for someone to hear their cries.
The child is determined to find an audience for his emotional expression, so he walks closer to the house and starts to cry.

Children under 1 year of age have similar emotional expressions to those seen in adults.

At approximately 3 years of age, the emotions a child experiences become highly differentiated.

The answer is that the child develops some sophisticated cognitive abilities that set the stage for a new set of emotions.
A sense of self-awareness, a set of standards, an understanding of what constitutes success or failure, and the ability to evaluate his or her behavior compared to the standards have been acquired by the child.
The negative emotions of shame and guilt and the positive emo tion of pride are the basis for the self conscious emotions.
Emotions can lead to other emotions such as anger and sadness.
When an individual senses that he or she has failed to live up to his or her standards, shame ensues.
The shamed son wants to hide, disappear or die.
The person can be rendered speechless by this intensely negative and painful emotion.
Physical abuse can have long-term effects on the ability to see facial expressions.
Children between the ages of 8 and 10 were shown faces that ranged from happy to sad.
Children who have been abused are more likely to categorize a face as angry even if it only has a small amount of anger.
Abused children showed more brain activity when looking at angry faces, suggesting that the abuse affected their ability to recognize facial expressions.

When a person evaluates his or her behavior as a fail ure and focuses on the specific features of the self or actions that led to the failure, guilt is produced.

These people are hurt by the evaluation of the failure, but they don't want to hurt the object of the harm.

Some corrective action is taken to repair the failure and prevent it from happening again.
Guilt is not as negative as shame and does not lead to confusion and loss of action.

Pride and shame are not the same as happiness and sadness.

If you win a lot of money, you will probably be happy with the money, but you won't feel proud because winning isn't seen as having anything to do with your behavior.
If it was not your fault, you wouldn't feel shame or guilt.

The concept recognizes that brain power, measured by tests of intel ligence and standardized achievement tests, is not as important for success as the qualities outlined here.

Measures of general intelligence seem unrelated to emotional intelligence.

Various measures of emotional intelligence have yielded intriguing results.

When one partner had a high emotional score and the other had a low one, I was happy; when one partner had a high emotional score and the other had a low one, I was unhappy.

Negative correlation between emotional intelligence and addictive behaviors such as drinking and smoking has been found in research.

It is unclear if the addiction causes a drop in emotional intelligence or if people with lower emotional intelligence are more likely to use it.

Some people don't know which emotion they are feeling.

They may not know that they are angry at a person for dying.
Consider in yourself and others.
Identifying which emo functioning at home, school, work, tions we are feeling is a key element of emotional intelligence because it helps individuals and in relationships with others.

Anger is one of the hardest to control because of its evolutionary value, and it appears to be easier to control than other impulses.

Anger increases its power.
To control anger, the body needs a chance to use up the adrenaline through exercise, relaxation techniques, or the well-known admonition to count to 10.
Understanding how anger can affect our behavior is an example of emotional intelligence.
The arts of listening, resolving conflicts, and cooperation are included in education.
Proponents of emotional intelligence instruction say it would be easier to teach students who can maintain their emotional equilibrium in the face of a wide variety of stressors at home.

There is an application for emotional intelligence in the workplace.

People who score high on emotional intelligence get more positive ratings from their supervisors.
Their peers reported that they had fewer con flits with them and that they thought they were creating a positive atmosphere at work.
Emotional intelligence is a high value in certain fields.

In a high-stress environment such as a hospital, leaders who are able to interpret the emotions of their coworkers, facilitate work rela tionships and communicate well are incredibly valuable.

Emotions judgments about events lead to emotional reactions.

They are not described in all cultures.

They are important factors of emotion.

People were given injections.

Some cultures have unique words.

People watched a movie.

English-language cultures don't have a lot of words for emotions.