Chapter 12 The Political Ordering of Space

12.1 National Political Systems

Most significant element in human geography is the nearly complete division of the Earth’s land surface into separate country units
States, Nations, and Nation-States * State * Any of the political units forming a federal government (e.g., one of the United States) * An independent political entity holding sovereignty over a territory (e.g., the United States) * Nation * An independent political unit holding sovereignty over a territory (e.g., a member of the United Nations) * A community of people with a common culture and territory (e.g., the Kurdish nation) * Nation-State * A state whose territorial extent coincides with that occupied by a distinct nation or people or, at least, whose population shares a general sense of cohesion and adherence to a set of common values
The Evolution of the Modern State * Concept and practice of the political organization of space and people arose independently in many parts of the world
Challenges to the State * The world is increasingly under assaults from multiple new agents of economic and social power
Spatial Characteristics of States * Size * Area that a state occupies may be large, as is China, or small, as is Liechtenstein * Shape * A country’s shape can affect its well-being as a state by fostering or hindering effective organization * Location * Size and shape as factors in a national wellbeing can be modified by a state’s location * Cores and Capitals * Grew outward from a central region, gradually expanding into surrounding territory * Core area * Contains its most developed economic base, densest population, and largest cities, as well as the most highly developed transportation systems
Boundaries: The Limits of the State * Natural and Geometric Boundaries * Natural boundaries * Based on recognizable physiographic features, such as * Mountains * Rivers * Lakes * Geometric boundaries * Segments of parallels of latitude or meridians of longitude, they are found chiefly in Africa, Asia, and the Americas * Boundaries Classified by Settlement * Antecedent boundary * Drawn across an area before it is well populated * Subsequent * Boundaries that are drawn after the development of the cultural landscape * Consequent * Type of subsequent boundary * Relic boundary * Former boundary line that no longer functions as such is still marked by some landscape features or differences on the two sides * Boundary Disputes * Positional disputes * They occur when states disagree about the interpretation of documents that define a boundary and/or the way the boundary was delimited * Once the area becomes populated and gains value, the exact location of the boundary becomes important * Irredentism * When the people of one state want to annex a territory whose population is ethnically related to that of the state but now subject to a foreign government * Resource disputes * They are closely related to territorial conflicts * Centrifugal forces * Destabilize and weaken a state
Centripetal Forces: Promoting State Cohesion * Centripetal * When a state is characterized by forces that promote unity and national stability and by others that disrupt them * Nationalism * One of the most powerful of the centripetal forces * States promote nationalism in a number of ways * Unifying Institutions * Institutions as well as symbols help to develop the sense of commitment and cohesiveness essential to the state * Schools are expected to instill the society’s * Goals * Values * Traditions * Institutions that advance nationalism are the armed forces and, sometimes, a state church * Organization and Administration * Another bonding force is public confidence in the effective organization of the state * Transportation and Communication * Transportation network fosters political integration by promoting interaction among areas and by joining them economically and socially * The capital city is better connected to other cities than the outlying cities are to one another * Canada and America not only opened up new areas for settlement but increased interaction between rural and urban districts * Roads and railroads have played a historically significant role in promoting political integration * The higher the level of development, the more resources there are to be invested in building transport routes * Mechanisms of control include restrictions on trade through tariffs or embargoes
Centrifugal Forces: Challenges to State Authority * State cohesion is not easily achieved or, once gained, invariably retained * Destabilizing centrifugal forces are ever-present, sowing internal discord and challenges to the state’s authority * Sub-nationalism * Country whose population is not bound by a shared sense of nationalism is split by several local primary allegiances * Nationalism has created currents of unrest within many countries, even long established ones

12.2 Cooperation Among States

Supranationalism * The state or condition of transcending national boundaries, authority, or interests Global health governance * Associations among states represent a new dimension in the ordering of national power and national independence
The United Nations and Its Agencies * Maritime Boundaries * Division of the Earth's water surface areas * Water covers more than two-thirds of the Earth’s surface * An International Law of the Sea * Unrestricted extensions of jurisdiction and disputes over conflicting claims to maritime space and resources led to a series of UN conferences on the Law of the Sea * The high seas beyond the EEZ. Outside any national jurisdiction, they are open to all states * EEZ * exclusive economic zone * UN Affiliates * Specialized international agencies with affiliated relationships with the United Nations and operating under its auspices * FAO * World Bank * ILO * UNICEF * WHO * WTO
Regional Alliances * These groupings can be economic, military, or political * Economic Alliances * Common market with a customs union * Participant countries have both common policies on product regulation, freedom of movement of goods, services and the factors of production * Military and Political Alliances * Military * Based on the principle that unity assures strength * Depend on the perceived common interests and political goodwill of the countries involved * Political * Generalized mutual concerns or appeals to historical interest

12.3 Local and Regional Political Organization

The Geography of Representation: The Districting Problem * Reapportionment * The number of representatives allotted to each district may be modified * More than 85,000 local governmental units in the United States * Electoral geography * Analyzing how the shape and location of voting district boundaries influences election outcomes * Gerrymandering * Practice of drawing the boundaries of electoral districts * Affirmative racial gerrymandering * Advantage classes of candidates in a way that attempts to right historical injustices and achieve greater fairness in the electoral system
The Fragmentation of Political Power * When political groups want to maximize their representation and minimize that of opposition groups, drawing boundaries at any electoral level is not always easy * The United States is subdivided into great numbers of political administrative units whose areas of control are spatially limited