Chapter 5: Learning

Definition of Learning

5.1 Definition of Learning

• Learning: any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice

It Makes Your Mouth Water: Classical Conditioning

5.2 Pavlov and the Salivating Dogs

• Reflex: an involuntary response, one that is not under personal control or choice
• Classical Conditioning: learning to make an involuntary response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces the response
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): in classical conditioning, a naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary and unlearned response
• Unconditioned Response (UCR): in classical conditioning, an involuntary and unlearned response to a naturally occurring or unconditioned stimulus
• Neutral Stimulus (NS): in classical conditioning, a stimulus that has no effect on the desired response prior to conditioning
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): in classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus that becomes able to produce a conditioned response, after pairing with an unconditioned stimulus
• Conditioned Response (CR): in classical conditioning, a learned response to a conditioned stimulus
• Stimulus Generalization: the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response
• Stimulus Discrimination: the tendency to stop making a generalized response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus because the similar stimulus is never paired with the unconditioned stimulus
• Extinction: the disappearance or weakening of a learned response following the removal or absence of the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or the removal of a reinforcer (in operant conditioning)
• Spontaneous Recovery: the reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred
• Higher-Order Conditioning: occurs when a strong conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus, causing the neutral stimulus to become a second conditioned stimulus.

5.3 Classical Conditioning Applied to Human Behavior

• Cognitive Perspective: modern perspective in psychology that focuses on memory, intelligence, perception, problem-solving, and learning
• Conditioned Emotional Response (CER): emotional response that has become classically conditioned to occur to learned stimuli, such as a fear of dogs or the emotional reaction that occurs when seeing an attractive person.
• Vicarious Conditioning: classical conditioning of an involuntary response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person
• Conditioned Taste Aversion: development of a nausea or aversive response to a particular taste because that taste was followed by a nausea reaction, occurring after only one association
• Biological Preparedness: referring to the tendency of animals to learn certain associations, such as taste and nausea, with only one or few pairings due to the survival value of the learning

What’s In It for Me? Operant Conditioning

5.4 The Contributions of Thorndike and Skinner

• Operant Conditioning: the learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses
• Law of Effect: law stating that if an action is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated, and if followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated
• Operant: any behavior that is voluntary and not elicited by specific stimuli
• Reinforcement: any event or stimulus, that when following a response, increases the probability that the response will occur again

5.5 The Concept of Reinforcement

• Reinforcers: any events or objects that, when following a response, increase the likelihood of that response occurring again
• Primary Reinforcer: any reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need, such as hunger, thirst, or touch
• Secondary Reinforcer: any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars
• Positive Reinforcement: the reinforcement of a response by the addition or experiencing of a pleasurable stimulus
• Negative Reinforcement: the reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus

5.6 Schedules of Reinforcement: Why the One-Armed Bandit is So Seductive

• Partial Reinforcement Effect: the tendency for a response that is reinforced after some, but not all, correct responses to be very resistant to extinction
• Continuous Reinforcement: the reinforcement of each and every correct response
• Fixed Interval Schedule of Reinforcement: schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is always the same
• Variable Interval Schedule of Reinforcement: schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is different for each trial or event
• Fixed Ratio Schedule of Reinforcement: schedule of reinforcement in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is always the same
• Variable Ratio Schedule of Reinforcement: schedule of reinforcement in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is different for each trial or event

5.7 The Role of Punishment in Operant Conditioning

• Punishment: any event or object that, when following a response, makes that response less likely to happen again.
• Punishment by Application: the punishment of a response by the addition or experiencing of an unpleasant stimulus.
• Punishment by Removal: the punishment of a response by the removal of a pleasurable stimulus.

5.8 Other Aspects of Operant Conditioning

5.9 Application of Operant Conditioning: Shaping and Behavior Modification

• Shaping: the reinforcement of simple steps in behavior through successive approximations that lead to a desired, more complex behavior
• Instinctive Drift: tendency for an animal’s behavior to revert to genetically controlled patterns
• Behavior Modification: the use of learning techniques to modify or change undesirable behavior and increase desirable behavior
• Token Economy: the use of objects called tokens to reinforce behavior in which the tokens can be accumulated and exchanged for desired items or privileges.
• Applied Behavior of Analysis (ABA): modern term for a form of functional analysis and behavior modification that uses a variety of behavioral techniques to mold a desired behavior or response
• Biofeedback: using feedback about biological conditions to bring involuntary responses, such as blood pressure and relaxation, under voluntary control
• Neurofeedback: form of biofeedback using brain scanning devices to provide feedback about brain activity in an effort to modify behavior

Cognitive Learning Theory

5.10 Tolman’s Maze-Running Rats: Latent Learning

• First group of rats was reinforced to solve a maze without any error through repetition
• Second group of rats got no reinforcement
• Third group was a control group
• Latent Learning: learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful

5.11 Kohler’s Smart Chimp: Insight Learning

• Insight: ****the sudden perception of relationships among various parts of a problem, allowing the solution to the problem to come quickly

5.12 Seligman’s Depressed Dogs: Learned Helplessness

• Learned Helplessness: the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past

Observational Learning

5.13 Bandara and the BOBO Doll

• Observational Learning: learning new behavior by watching a model perform that behavior
• Learning/Performance Distinction: referring to the observation that learning can take place without actual performance of the learned behavior

5.14 The Four Elements of Observational Learning

• Attention: to learn through observation, the learner must pay attention to the model
• Memory: must be able to retain the memory of what was done, like remembering the steps
• Imitation: learner must be capable of reproducing, or imitating, the actions of the model
• Desire:  lastly, learner must have the desire or motivation to perform the action

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