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setups will be given as possible answers on the AP exam. If you want to see which answer represents your answer, write the correct setup to the problem.

Matter can be found in one of three states. The particles that make up a solid are close together and locked into a framework called a crystal lattice.

The motion is slight.

It matches the container in which it is placed. The particles are moving faster than the solid. There are usually clumps of particles moving together.

It expands to fill the container. The particles act independently of each other and move quickly.

H2O(s) would represent ice, while H2O(g) would represent steam. Chapters 8 and 12 are for a more detailed discussion of liquids and gases.

The first modern atomic theory was presented in the 18th century.

The atoms of an element are 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- The mass of the electron was calculated by Robert Millikan after he measured the charge on the electron in his oil drop experiment.

The atom was described in the model as being a diffuse positively charged sphere with electrons scattered throughout.

In 1910, Ernest Rutherford shot positively charged alpha particles at a gold foil to investigate atomic structure. Most of the particles passed through with no interference, a few were slightly perturbed, and an alpha particle was occasionally diverted back towards the alpha source. The atom was mostly empty space where the electrons were, and there was a dense core of positive charge at the center of the atom that contained most of the atom's mass.

The modern theory of the atom describes it as a sphere with a nucleus at the center, which holds the neutral and positive charged particles.

The charges on the symbols for the protons and neutron are not included in many books.

The mass of a carbon-12 atom is 1/12 and contains 6 protons and 6 neutrons.

The number of electrons is equal to the number of protons.

The number of neutrons in an atom may be different.

The number of neutrons can be determined by subtracting the atomic number from the mass number.

The electrons in an atom are located in various energy levels or shells that are different distances from the nucleus according to the latest atomic model. The closer to the nucleus the electrons are found, the lower the number of shell. The number associated with the shell is the same as the number of subshells found.

A total of 32 levels have two subshells. The subshells correspond to different shaped volumes of space in which the probability of finding the electrons is high. There are seven for an f, three for a p, five for a d, and one for an s subshell. There are two electrons in an orbital. The table summarizes the shells, subshells, and orbitals in an atom.

It can be hard to remember the relative energy position of the orbitals. If you study the pattern, you can reproduce it during the exam.

A lot of information is conveyed in this filling pattern. The electronic configuration is a shorthand method for giving the same information.

Write the number of the shell, the type of orbital, and the energy level at the same time. There are two electrons in the s-orbital in energy level l, and one electron in the s-orbital in energy level 2.

The sum of all the superscripts should be equal to the number of electrons in the atom. It is possible to write electronic configurations for cations and anions.

It would be difficult for chemistry students to learn the individual properties of the elements. Early scientists had to do that.

Several scientists began to notice trends in the properties of the elements and began grouping them in different ways. The first modern periodic table was introduced in 1871 by a Russian chemist. The elements were arranged in a way that increased their atomic mass.

The elements that had the same properties were put in the same column. The existence and properties of elements were predicted by Mendeleev. When they were discovered, Mendeleev's predictions were ably accurate. The periodic table was rearranged to sequence the elements by increasing atomic number.

The periodic table is not supplied on the AP exam.

You can use the unlabeled one if you become familiar with the labels. You can add labels to the one supplied with the exam.

Each square on the table has three bits of information. The element symbol is the first. The atomic number of the element is listed in the square. The element's nucleus has a number of protons. The whole number will always be the atomic number. The element's mass is listed in the square underneath the symbol. The number is not a whole number because it takes into account the abundance of the naturally occurring elements. The mass number can never be less than the atomic number.

There are different groupings of elements on the periodic table. The elements are put into three main groups--metals, nonmetals and metalloids. The heavy, stair-stepped line starts at boron and goes downward and to the right. The elements to the left of that line are classified as metals.

cations are formed when metals lose electrons in reactions.

The elements bordering the stair-stepped line are classified as metalloids. They are valuable in the computer industry.

The rest of the elements are called nonmetals. Some are gases, are poor conductors of heat and electricity, and tend to gain electrons in their chemical reactions to form anions.

The elements are grouped on the periodic table in terms of periods and groups. The periods are numbered from 1 to 7. In terms of reactions, elements in the same period do not have the same properties.

They could be labeled in one of two ways. An older and still widely used system is to label each group with a Roman numeral and a letter. The B groups are filling d-orbitals while the inner elements are filling f-orbitals.

One way to label the groups is to number them from left to right. This method is newer than the other method and has not gained widespread use. The older method is preferred by most teachers and chemists.

You have to explain the trend. "higher on the periodic table" is a trend, but not a reason.

The positive nuclear charge interacts with the negative elec trons. The electron from the full nuclear charge can be interfered with by electrons between the nucleus and the electron under consideration. The nuclear charge is lessened by this shielding. The shielding is almost constant, but the effective nuclear charge will increase with the number of protons. As the atomic number increases, so does the shielding, resulting in a relatively constant effective nuclear charge.

The number of energy levels occupied by electrons determines the size of an atom. The size of the atom increases as we move from top to bottom in a group. The atomic size decreases as we move from left to right, due to the increased effective nuclear charge for the electrons. The number of protons within the nucleus is increasing. Since the nuclear attraction is being distributed over additional electrons, the size of a cation is smaller than the neutral atom. The larger the species becomes, the greater the repul sion.

It can be expressed in terms of 1 atom or a mole of atoms. In order to overcome the attraction of the nucleus for electrons, energy is required.

The magnitude of the energy is affected by two factors. The size of the atom is one. The closer the electrons are to the nucleus, the more energy is needed.

The first electrons to be lost in a group are farther away from the nucleus.

The effective nuclear charge is a factor. The more energy is required to remove the electron, the higher the effec tive nuclear charge. The effective nuclear charge increases from left to right within a period. The smaller the atom, the greater the nuclear attraction for the electrons.

The ionization energy for the removal of a second electron is greater in all cases than the first, because the electron is being pulled away from a positively charged ion and the attraction is greater than from a neutral atom.

The trends in electron affinity are not always the same. Increased effective nuclear charge increases electron affinity from left to right within a period, and decreases from top to bottom within a group. Noble gases are not an exception.

The trends mentioned in this section may help you on the multiple-choice portion of the AP exam. The underlying reasons are what you need for the free response portion.

Don't confuse oxidation numbers with the charge on an ion.

The element's oxidation number is zero.

The oxidation number of a monoatomic ion is the same as the charge on the ion. The number of oxi dation is +2. The charge is written with the number first, then sign, and then number.

The oxidation numbers of the elements in a neutral molecule are zero. The charge on the ion is equal to the sum of oxidation numbers in a polyatomic ion.

All the compounds of the alkali metal have an oxidation number of +2.

The oxidation number of the alkaline earth metals is +2.

The oxidation number of hydrogen in compounds is -1, except when combined with metals or boron.

When combined with another halogen above them on the periodic table or with oxygen, the oxidation number of the compounds is -1.

The oxidation number of oxygen is -2 in compounds.

Determine the number of sulfur in the acid. Since this is a neutral compound, the sum of all the oxi dation numbers must be zero.

This compound must have an oxidation number of 6.

The rules for naming simple compounds are covered in this overview. There are some exceptions to the rules. The first part of the overview talks about the rules for naming a formula. The formula may be determined by reversing the process. The second part looks at situations in which more information is needed to generate a formula. There is a section covering transition metal terminology and coordination compounds.

There are two elements in a compound. Special names for some of the com pounds supersede the rules given below.

H2O is water, NH3 is ammonia, and CH4 is methane. There are three types of compounds: metal type, nonmetal type, and acid type.

These compounds start with metals. The formula starts with the metal. Nonmetals are on the right side of the periodic table, while metals are on the left side. This generalization does not apply to hydrogen, a nonmetal.

The compounds of the ammonium ion are often named under this rule. NH4Cl is named after the substance.

The formulas for these compounds start with a nonmetal.

The number of each atom is indicated by prefixes. No prefixes are used for hydrogen.

If a metal is present, the nonmetal prefixes are not used.

One exception to this is MnO2, also known as manganese dioxide.

The formulas for these compounds begin with hydrogen.

The naming is similar to the metal type if the compound is not in solution.

The state of matter should be shown if the compound is not in solution.

It doesn't matter if the phase or water is indicated.

If the first element is hydrogen, it is classified as an acid. The compound is usually classified as an oxyacid if the formula contains oxygen and hydrogen. If the first element in the formula is not hydrogen, the compound is classified as a salt.

These acids undergo many reactions to form salts, compounds of a metal, and the ion of an acid.

2SO4 and HNO3 are both SO4. Salts have the same names as the ion.

The first element is usually a metal when the ternary compound is not an acid. The name of the compound is simply the name of the metal followed by the name of the ion. In these cases, the ammonium ion is treated as a metal.

To write the formula from the name of a compound with only nonmetals, simply write the symbols for the separate atoms with the prefixes converted to subscripts.

The total charge must be zero in all compounds. There are no exceptions. It is necessary to know what the individual charges are in order to determine the formula in those cases. The positive charge species is listed first, followed by the negative charge species. It is possible thatscripts are needed to make sure the charges are equal.

This allows for MgO.

Na2O is given by this.

O3 is 2(+3) + 3(-2).

parentheses should be used if a polyatomic ion must be increased to achieve zero charge.

This gives (NH4)2SO4.

It is possible to predict the values of the subscripts. For practice purposes in this exercise, it will be referred to as the crisscross rule. It works most of the time and is worth considering.

If the rule is applied, you should reduce the formula.

It reduces to MnO2.

The position on the periodic table can be used to predict the valences of the representative elements. The positive charges for hydrogen and the metals begin on the left and increase as you move to the right on the periodic table.

Nonmetals may be treated as metals. Many transition metals and the group of six elements centered around lead on the periodic table have more than one valence. Before a compound can be named, it is necessary to know the valence of the metals. The Roman numeral suffix indicates the valence of one of these metals. The charge was indicated by using different suffixes.

The compound is called iron(III) chloride.

Two chloride ion are -2. To give a total charge of zero, Fe has a valence of +2. The name of the substance is iron(II) chloride.

The name of the substance would be manganese(IV) oxide.

The metal has a Roman numeral suffix. Iron is one word.

Stock notation should be used for all metals. The elements immediately around lead on the periodic table are included. Stock notation is not used for Zn, Cd, and Ag because they do not have variable valences.

Some metals and acids have their valences listed in the appendixes.

When the structure of the complex is not certain, the square brackets are not used.

A metal surrounded by atoms or groups of atoms is called a complex.

The metal behaves as a Lewis acid and accepts electrons from the Lewis base. The oxygen atom donates one of its pairs to the nickel in this case. The donor atom is the oxygen atom. There are six donor atoms in this complex.

A complex can be neutral or ionic. A complex ion is an ionic complex.

A coordination compound is a neutral complex.

A coordination compound must have an overall neutral charge if it contains more than one complex ion. Coordination compounds include Pt(NH3)2Cl2, K2[Mn(C2O4)3], and Ni(H2O)6SO4.

The material not listed in the brackets is named separately.

The entire name will be one word if the formula is enclosed within one set of brackets. Outside material is named separately if there is material outside the brackets.

cations are always named before anions.

When naming a complex. Remember that metals are first in the formula and last in the name.

The neutral ligands are basically the same. The names of other common ligands are listed in the appendixes.

When using the alternative prefixes, it is a good idea to include the name of the ligand within parentheses. After the ligands have been alphabetized, either type of prefix is added.

The metal's name will need to be changed. Both aluminum and zinc would become zincate.

Some metals have symbols that are based on Latin or Greek names.

The Roman numeral is part of the same word and not a separate grouping. No indicator is used if the metal only occurs in one oxidation state. The Stock system was discussed earlier.

The two of us have a combined 60 years of teaching experience.

We will try to steer you away from the most common ones.

You should always show your units in mathematical problems.

If you want to convert from degF to degC, be sure to subtract 32 from the temperature first, then add up the numbers.

If you want to convert from degC to degF, be sure to add 32 to the Celsius temperature.

No degree sign is used for him.

Measure the values for significant figures.

If there is a decimal point, pay attention to whether or not zeroes to the right of the last non-zero digit are significant.

Only your final answer is round off.

In working problems, make sure that your units don't work.

If you are trying to solve cm, make sure you end up with cm.

Make sure you answer in a reasonable way.

Only the s and p electrons are considered when determining valence electrons.

Don't put more than 2 electrons in an individual orbital.

The lowest energy levels should be filled first.

Before you pair up the electrons, fill half of the space with equal energy.

The correct filling order is important when writing the electronic configuration of an atom.

The periods should not be confused with the groups on the table.

It's not a good idea to confuse ionized energy with electron affinity.

Don't confuse oxidation numbers with ionic charges.

Don't confuse metal and nonmetal type compounds.

Prefixes are only used with nonmetal types.

The crisscross rule can be used to reduce the subscripts to their lowest whole-number ratio.

It's important to report the correct number of significant figures.

You can pick the correct multiple-choice answer if you know a periodic trend, but be prepared to explain it in free-response questions.

You can use the questions here to practice for the AP Chemistry exam. There are 26 multiple-choice questions that are similar to the section I of the AP Chemistry exam. Section II of the exam has a four-part free-response question. You can make these questions even more authentic by following the instructions.

You can't use a calculator. The periodic table and equation sheet can be found at the back of the book.

You can choose the ion with the largest ionic radius.

You have a solution of NaCl.

The series (C) sulfite/sulfurous acid is formed by chlorine. There is a book on the earth.

The book is hypobromous acid, per bro transported to the moon, where the gravity is mic acid, bromic acid 1/6 that on the surface of the earth. The book now weighs 1.0 pound.

Most of the elements are made of metal.

monatomic cations are formed by an increase in the number of protons. Ne, a noble gas, does not form ion.

The element is not another metal.

Carbon gives a polyatomic ion with slight decreases. The general formula should be this thought process. The carbonate ion can be used on the free-response portion of the AP formula CO2 exam.

The periodic multiple-choice questions are based on their positions.

The only gas that is not toxic is radon.

The left side of the table has a lot of reactive metals. It is not a metal.

Isotopes must have the same number of means. There are different elements that need to balance the charge.

B is blue, C is orange, and D is pink to red.

This is the only way to get both an ing radius. When going ing a metal and a nonmetal, compounds contain the same charge increase in size.

The row of nonmetals in a compound increases in size toward the left.

The free response portion of the exam requires more than this argument.

Prefixes are used when naming compounds.

The element farthest from F carbon dioxide, CO2, and di bromine trioxide will have the lowest elec.

There is a protective oxide coating on aluminum.

One of the elements that will improve the periodic table is the large iodine atom, which gains an electron to make germanium.

B is purple, C is green and D is odorless.

The lesssoluble material is what defines electron affinity.

The higher the per bromic acid, the more electrons are removed.

Change in electron shell is a weak base solution. This is true for Na. It is the best choice for the acid but not the heat.

A solution containing a colored substance is as follows.

The solution is intense purple.

The weight is dependent on the mass of an object not simple. The best choice is through evaporation.

Mass is fixed, which is the reason why it is referred to as NO 2.

Both authors have been free-response graders.

You have 10 minutes to answer the question. You can use the tables in the back of the book.

The periodic table can be used to explain the following observations.

The first ionized energy of B is more powerful than that of Li.

Then compare CaO to BaO.

The same crystal structure is adopted by all the solids.

The answers are very short. Don't try to fill all the space on the exam. You score points by saying specific things. The grad ers look for certain words. There may be a penalty if the answers contain statements that conflict with each other. The student tries to say too much. On the AP exam, the different parts of the free-response questions tend to be more diverse than this one, as this question focuses only on this chapter, whereas the AP free-response questions focus on the entire course.

The effective nuclear charge has increased in this series. The repulsion between the remaining electrons decreases when electrons are removed. An increase in the effective nuclear charge is caused by a decrease in electron repulsion.

Give yourself 1 point for the effective nuclear charge and 1 point for the rest of the discussion.

It is possible to shorten the configurations to Fe [Ar]4s23d6, Fe2+ [Ar]3d6, and Fe3+ [Ar]3d5. The electrons from the outer shell are removed first. The outer shell for iron is 4.

Each correct electron configuration will get you 1 point.

The increase from Li to Be to B is caused by this. Unless you also discuss effective nuclear charge, don't use the argument that ionization energies increase to the right on the periodic table.

The higher value of Be is due to the increased stability of the electron configuration. There is a filled s-subshell. Filled subshells require more energy to pull an electron away.

If you say that the energy on the periodic table increases to the right, you will get 0 points. This is not an explanation. The nuclear charge argument is worth a point. You should give yourself 1 more point for the subshell discussion.

The electrons are attracted to this. Unless you also discuss effective nuclear charge, don't use the argument that electron affinity increases to the right on the periodic table.

The answer to the effective nuclear charge is 1 point.

Anion size arguments are not important because the sizes of the anions are the same. The structure and anion size are important. The two compounds with the highest lattice energies have divalent ion in them. The higher the charge, the more attraction there is.

The larger the ion is, the lower the attraction is. The lower attraction leads to a lower lattice energy.

Correctly discussing the charges will get you 1 point. A correct size argument will get you more points.

There is a chance for 10 points.

The most important points in the chapter are reviewed here. You should study it in the chapter and textbook.

Know how to convert the temperature scales to the other two.

Mass per unit volume is the density of a substance.

Know how to determine the number of significant figures in a number, the rules for how many significant figures are to be shown in the final answer, and the round-off rules.

Know how to use the factor label method to set up problems.

Know what part of the development of the atomic model was done by Dalton, Thompson, Millikan, and Rutherford.

The atoms of the same element have different numbers of neutrons.

Major energy levels are called shells. There are orbitals for each subshell.

To be able to write both the energy-level diagram and the electronic configuration of an atom or ion, you have to apply the Aufbau build-up principle and the Hund's rule.

The differences between the current table and the current table were developed in the modern periodic table.

The elements have properties that are different from those of the other members of the period.

The elements have the same properties as the groups and families on the periodic table.

The Valence electrons are outer-shell electrons.

The IA family is known as the alkali metals, the IIAs are the alkaline earth metals, the VIIAs are the halogens, and the VIIIAs are the noble gases.

As we move from left to right on the periodic table, atoms get larger as we go from top to bottom in a group. Simply quoting a trend is not enough to answer the question on the free-response section. This is true for all trends.

Ionization energy is the amount of energy needed to remove an electron from a ion.

It changes from top to bottom and from left to right on the table.

The energy change that takes place when an electron is added to a gaseous atom or ion is the same trend as for electron affinity. The trends are dependent on the size of the atom and the effective nuclear charge.

Oxidation numbers are numbers in the books. There are rules for assigning oxidation numbers.

To be able to name nonmetal type compounds, as well as ternary compounds, oxyacids, simple coordination compounds, etc.

Chemical reactions are the world of chemistry.

There are energy changes during this process. It takes a lot of energy to break bonds. New bonds release energy. The reactants will have to be converted into products. The chemical reactions that provide the energy for our world are exothermic. You can read more about the energy changes that occur during reactions in Chapter 9.

There are reactions because of crashes. A chemical species collides with another at the right place and creates a chemical reaction. The reactions can be very fast or very slow. The factors that affect the speed of reactions can be studied in Chapter 14.

In this chapter, we will review the balancing of chemical equations, discuss the general types of chemical reactions, and describe why these reactions occur.

The free-response section of the AP exam contains reaction questions.

The treatment of chemical reactions was changed after the AP exam in 2007. The formulas of the reactants and products chosen from a series of reac tions were the subject of the free-response questions in the past. You weren't expected to write balanced chemical equations. The current AP Chemistry exam format does not allow you to choose from a list of reactions.

You are expected to answer questions about each reaction and write a balanced chemical equation for it. The net ionic equation is needed for the process if the reaction occurs in a solution. You will be expected to balance the equation and have an under standing of why the reaction happens on the AP exam. Other parts of the AP exam may include the reactions and concepts described. You will need to understand why a particular reaction occurs. You should pay particular attention to the explanations that accompany the reactions and equations in this chapter. The AP exam requires you to demonstrate your understanding.

The authors hope that if you take the AP exam, you will be exposed to the balancing of chemical equations. As the different types of chemical reactions are discussed, we will point out some aspects of balancing equations.

There are many types of information provided by a balanced chemical equation. Which chemical species are the reactants and which are the products are shown. In which state of matter the reactants and products exist may be indicated by this. The coefficients show the number of each reactant and the number of each product that is formed. These coefficients may be used to represent large numbers of moles, or they may be used to represent individual atoms. The number of each type of reactant atom has to be the same as the number of each type of product atom. The equation needs to be balanced by the reactant and product coefficients. The coefficients should be the lowest possible whole-number ratio.

Most equations are balanced. A trial-and-error approach to adjusting coefficients is what this means. Balance the same nucleus molecule last is a procedure that works well. You should know the diatomic elements of chemical species. It's useful when balancing reactions. Knowing that oxygen is the diatomic element is absolutely necessary in balancing the equation if the problem states that oxygen gas was used.

The periodic table can give us clues as to what is happening.

One general rule is that nonmetals react with other nonmetals to form covalent compounds and that metals react with nonmetals to form ionic compounds. You will be expected to write the net ionic equation for the reaction if it is ring in solution.

The members of a family or group all react the same way because of the wonderful arrangement of the periodic table. The reaction rate increases as we go from top to bottom in a family. The reaction rate increases as we move from the bottom of the family to the top. The noble gases undergo very few reactions. The various reaction sections will discuss other periodic aspects.

You will study many of the reactions that occur in the solution. The universal solvent is water. It's polar nature makes it easy to remove ionic com pounds and polar covalent compounds. The polar water molecule can be attracted by the ion and form a bound layer around themselves.

Many ionic compounds are not dissolved in water. If the attraction of the oppositely charged ion in the solid for each other is greater than the attraction of the polar water molecule for the ion, then the salt will not dissolved to an amount. The strong attraction of the ion for each other overcomes the weaker attraction for the water molecule if the solutions are mixed.

Alcohols are polar and are readily dissolved in water. Water will act as a solvent for these compounds since they are both polar.

There are substances that do not conduct anelectri cal current when dissolved in water.

There are many ways of representing reactions in water. If we were to write the equation to describe the mixing of a lead nitrate solution with a sodium sulfate solution, we would show the formation of a solid lead sulfate.

The equation in the ionic form shows which species are reacting and which are not. They are there to maintain electrical neutrality of the solution.

The substances that are involved in the reaction are the focus of this net ionic equation. Any solution containing Pb2+ will react with any solution containing the sulfate ion to form insoluble lead(II) sulfate. If this equation form is used, the spectator ion involved will not be known, since the focus is on the general reaction, and not the specific one. Many of the reactions on the test will require you to write a balanced net ionic equation.

Precipitation reactions occur in solution. The example above was used to demonstrate a precipitation reaction. A sulfate was formed from the mixing of two solutions.

You can write reactants and products in their ionic form. It is important that you do not try to break apart organic compounds or insoluble species.

You can apply the following solubility rules by combining the cation of one reactant with the anion of the other in the correct formula ratio. Do the same thing for both anion and cation combinations.

You will be expected to explain why a substance is insoluble on the AP exam.

It's not enough to simply quote the rule.

Water has all the salts in it.