Russia and Japan

• In 1899, he said it when he compared the two.

• The relationship between education and other aspects of Japanese development is shown in the latest in naval technology.

• According to Fukuzawa, the problem in Japanese education was Confucianism.

  • He believed that the Confucian tradition valued science and mathematics more than other traditions.

• Conservatives in Japan were offended by this enthusiasm for Western education.

• Fukuzawa, a member of the elite and family friend of the conservatives, was sensitive to their criticism.

  • He worried that he wasn't being faithful to the memory of his parents, who were Confucianists.

  • At a young age, he jumped into Western studies and didn't know much about Confucianism.

• Fukuzawa's dilemma was a common one for reformers, trying to prompt real change in a Western direction without offending traditionalists and without wanting to become fully Western.

  • Fukuzawa was bent but didn't break in his zeal.

• The chapter deals with two nations that were not part of the Western domination of the 19th century.

  • Russia and Japan launched significant programs of industrialization and made other changes to strengthen their political and social systems by 1900.

  • Russia and Japan were different from China and the Middle East in the 19th century.

  • Before the 1960s, theirs was the only society outside the West to begin a wholesale process of industrialization.

  • Russia enhanced its power in world affairs, while Japan pulled away from other Asian societies.

• During the West's century of power, Russia and Japan were able to maintain economic and political independence because of their similarities.

  • Japan from China, Russia from Byzantium and then the West were all examples of imitation.

  • They knew that learning from outsiders could be profitable.

  • The Tokugawa shogunate and the tsarist empire improved their political effectiveness during the 17th and 18th centuries.

  • Both nations could use the state to sponsor changes that had rested in part with private businesses.

  • Change took different directions in each society.

  • Russia's road to industrialization was marked by political oppression and harsh conditions for workers that undermined social stability.

• Japan's long experience with cultural adaptation in the face of change helped it manage the transition from a feudal to an industrial society.

  • The growing roles of global capitalism and the new forms of integration of capital and labor are illustrated by Industrialization outside the West.

• The Russian rulers sought ways to protect their country from the effects of the French Revolution, which began in 1861.

  • The idea that Western policies might help the serfs.

  • The 1812 invasion of Russia by Napoleon led to a new concern.

  • The move toward renewed isolation was supported by conservative intellectuals.

• The system of serfdom provided ignorant peasants with the guidance and protection of paternalistic masters.

• Russia before reform was the Dawn of the Industrial Age.

  • In order to resist Napoleon's pressure, the government introduced some improvements to bureaucratic training.

  • Russia, Prussia, and Austria would join forces to defend the established order.

  • Although the alliance itself accomplished little, the idea of Russia as a bastion of sanity in a Europe gone mad was appealing.

• Some important new tensions were produced by defending the status quo.

  • Intellectuals were fascinated with Western progress.

• Western cultural styles were the focus of others.

  • Russia began to contribute to Europe's cultural output in the 19th century.

  • The poet Pushkin, descended from an African slave, used romantic styles to celebrate the beauty of the Russian soul and the tragic dignity of the common people.

  • The romantic style took root in eastern Europe because of its compatibility with folklore and a sense of nationalism.

  • Russian musical composers would use folk themes and sentimentality in their compositions.

• Russia's ruling elite continued to welcome Western artistic styles and took great pride in Russia's growing cultural respectability, but they began to censor intellectuals who tried to offend liberal or radical political values.

  • The new tsar, Nicholas I, is still more adamant in his conservatism.

  • The political uprising, urging reform of tsarist autocracy, showed that liberal values had spread to elements of revolt in Russia, but its failure was more significant.

  • Middle-level army officers were stiffened by the suppression of political opponents.

  • Newspapers and schools were put down by tightly supervised reforms.

  • There was a lot of political criticism in exile.

• The wave of revolutions that spread through Europe in 1830 and in 1848 were largely avoided by Russia.

  • In 1849, Russia helped Austria put down the nationalist revolution in Hungary, which was a blow to the monarchy.

• Russia maintained its tradition of territorial expansion despite turning more conservative than it had been in the 18th century.

  • After Napoleon sponsored a separate Polish duchy, Russia confirmed its hold over most of Poland at the Congress of Vienna in 1816.

  • Nationalist sentiment, inspired by the growth of romantic nationalism in Poland and backed by many Polish landowners with ties to western Europe, roused recurrent Polish opposition to Russian rule.

  • The news of the revolutions in the West triggered an uprising led by liberals and Catholics who were upset with the rule of the Orthodox power.

  • Many leaders were driven into exile after Nicholas put down the revolt.

• The Ottoman empire's weakness attracted the attention of Russia.

  • Territorial gains were made during the war in the 1830s.

  • In order to counter Russian aggression, France and Britain tried to prop up Ottoman authority.

  • Russia's desire to cut back the Turks outweighs its commitment to conservatism, as evidenced by the Greek independence war in the 1820s.

  • Russia was a dynamic diplomatic and military force during the early 19th century.

• The beginnings of The Books of the Polish Nation industrialization, including some rail lines, were introduced by excerpts from ized and central European powers such as Prussia and Austria.

• Russian landlords took advantage of Western markets for grain, but they increased their exports not by improving their techniques, but by increasing their labor obligations.

  • In the early 19th century, labor service was increased by Polish and Hungarian nobles in order to get a foothold in the export market.

• The main conflicts were with the Ottoman empire.

• A few isolated factories that used foreign equipment were opened up in imitation of western European industrialization, but there was no significant change in overall manufacturing or transportation mechanisms.

  • Russia was a profoundly agricultural society, but it was also a stagnant society.

• Between 1854 and 1856, the gap between Russia and the West was driven home by a small war.

  • France and Britain were not content with diplomatic maneu 1854 and 1856, they came directly to the sultan's aid.

  • Britain was trying to attack the Ottoman empire and was worried about a great power advance in the region that might threaten its hold on India, whereas Russia was against Britain and was worried about a great power advance in the region.

• The Western powers won this little war because of their industrial advantage, not because of great tactics or inspired principles.

  • They had the ships to send huge quantities of military supplies long distances, and their weapons were superior to Russia's home-produced models.

  • The blow to the regime that prided itself on military prowess was frightening.

• Russia's leading social issue was War Recalled resolution of serfdom, the issue that most distinguished Russian society from that of the West.

  • If the status of serfs changed, Russia could develop a more vigorous and mobile labor force and be able to industrialize.

  • Russian concern about this issue mirrored the attacks on slavery in the Americas, reflecting a desire to meet Western humanitar ian standards and a need for cheap, flexible labor.

• Alexander II ended rigorous serfdom in order to protect distinctive Russian institutions, including the landed aristocracy and tightly knit peasant communities.

  • The result was an important series of political rights; were required to stay changes that created more grievances than they resolved while opening the way to in villages until they could repay further economic change.

• The United States and Brazil decided to free slaves at the same time that the final decision was made to emancipate the serfs.

• The serfs got most of the land despite the fact that they were slaves.

  • The tsar was not interested in destroying the nobility, who were his most reliable political allies and the source of most bureaucrats.

  • The tight grip of the tsarist state was intended to be retained.

  • The serfs did not get any new political rights.

  • They had to pay for the land they were given before they could leave their villages.

  • The money from the redemption was used to help the class.

  • Peasants thought that the land belonged to them without having to pay for it's return.

• The creation of a larger urban labor force was made possible by the abolition of slavery.

  • Most peasants continued to use traditional methods on their small plots because it did not spur a revolution in agricultural productivity.

• It didn't bring contentment.

  • As hopes for a brighter future seemed to be dashed by the limits of change, peasant uprisings became more common.

  • Russia's rural unrest was furthered by substantial popu lation growth as some of the factors that had earlier swelled the West's population now spread to Russia, including increased use of the potato.

  • Russia was a classic example of a society in the midst of rapid change where reform did not go far enough to satisfy key protest groups.

• The reform movement did not end with freedom.

  • Further measures were introduced in the 1860s and early 1870s by Alex ander II.

• The new law codes of the 19th century cut back on punishments for serfs because they were poor.

• Local government was needed now that nobles no longer ruled the peasantry.

  • The zemstvoes gave some Russians, particularly middle-class people such as doctors and lawyers, new political experience, and they undertook important middle-class professionals, some inquiries into local problems.

  • The tsar experience in government, as well as the council's insistence on maintaining his own authority, made no difference to national policy.

  • There was no impact on national policy.

• A new organization of essential services improved the officer corps.

  • Many peasants served in the military and learned new skills.

  • State-sponsored basic education was provided, although schools spread differently.

• In Russian society, literacy increased rapidly from the reform era onward.

  • There are similarities between the mass reading culture in the West and a new market for popular reading matter.

  • Russian potboiler novels have a pronounced taste for excitement and exotic adventure.

  • Russian "bad guys" were either returned to social loyalty or condemned, a sign of the limits to individualism.

  • The climate of change has led to new positions being gained by women.

  • As in the West, a minority of women from the upper classes began to enter professions such as medicine, and some won access to higher education.

  • Sexual habits began to change in the West a century earlier.

  • Sex activity before marriage increased, and nonagricultural jobs were available, loosened fathers' control over their children's behavior.

• The move toward industrialization was part of the larger process of change.

  • Russia lacked a middle class and capital to support state support.

  • The tradition of economic activity that went back to Peter the Great required state enterprises to make up part of the gap.

• Russia began to build a railroad network in the 1870s.

  • Expansion of Russia's iron and coal sectors was stimulated by the railroad boom.

  • The export of grain to the West, which earned foreign currency needed to pay for advanced Western goods, brought Russia into a more active machinery.

  • Siberia was opened up to new development by the railroads.

• The workers of enforcement in bastmatting factories were minimal.

  • All ages sleep together on mats and pieces of bast which are often damp.

  • The sick workers who dutifully reported on their work are allowed to sleep on the single stove.

  • Work at the mill conditions were ignored.

  • The owing pas never stops.

  • There are two twelve-hour shifts a day in Moscow.

• There are no special quarters for breakfast or dinner in most factories.

• This applies to workers in paper, wool, and silk.

  • Most of the flax-spinning mills where linen is produced have skilled hand craftsmen who make brocade weavers.

• Only in a few weaving factories are combing machines covered and there are special sleeping quarters for other workers.

• The scutching apparatus is where the velveteen cutters work, and they almost always sleep on the tables.

  • This habit is not good for you.

• The sizes of fines are not fixed in advance.

• A brief description of a few of the fines and the determination of the worker's wages was in factory No.

  • 172 is an example of extreme variety.

  • New fines were posted to factories in Podolsk on October 24, 1877.

  • There is a ten-ruble forfeiture for leaving the factory before the contract ends, which can be set at the discretion of the office.

  • There was a failure to maintain silence.

  • This covers more than just voluntary breeches of con, it also covers minor fines prescribed for certain offenses, such as tract on the worker's part.

  • On August 4, 1883, a huge fine of five rubles was set for anyone who had to leave the factory.

  • People who have had to pay this fine three times are known to have cases for singing in the factory courtyard after 9:30.

  • On June 3, 1881, a fine was to be levied for so many causes that falling under a severe from workers who took tea and sugar, bread, or any kind of fine is a constant possibility for each worker.

  • The fine was to be one ruble on May 14, 1880.

  • Walls in the dyeing or weaving buildings would be left behind if anyone wrote with pencil, chalk, or anything else after a second offense.

• The workers are still treated as serfs.

How did working conditions and management attitudes help the workers?

• Russia's railroad network had almost quintupled since 1860, and by the turn of the century, modern factories were beginning to spring up in Moscow, St. Petersburg, and several Polish cities.

  • The skilled artisanry in the cities was expanded by printing factories and metalworking shops, while metallurgy and textile plants recruited a newer semi skilled industrial labor force from the troubled countryside.

• The inflow of foreign capital is.

  • Half of the Russian industry was foreign owned and most of it was foreign operated.

• British, German, and French industrialists are leading.

  • Russia became a debtor nation because of huge industrial development loans.

  • Russia was ranked fourth in the world in steel production and second in the world in refining, behind the United States.

  • Russian textile output was very good.

  • Russian economic lags were starting to yield.

• The industrial revolution was still in its infancy.

  • Russia's world rank was more of a function of its size and population than of mechanization.

• Russian factories were not up to Western standards, and the labor force was not highly trained.

  • Peasants, often uneducated, had neither capital nor motives to change their ways.

• Other reforms produced ambiguous results.

  • Russia was a traditional peasant society.

  • Discipline and military efficiency were not up to par.

  • The absence of a large, self-confident middle class was obvious.

  • They were not as assertive as their Western counterparts.

• Alexander II's reforms, as well as economic change and the greater population mobility it involved, encouraged minority nationalities to make demands of the great empire.

  • Intellectuals looked at the cultural traditions of Ukrainians.

  • Nationalist beliefs were imported from western Europe, but here and elsewhere in eastern Europe, they encouraged divisive minority beliefs that multinational states, such as Russia and Austria-Hungary, found very hard to handle.

• Nationalist pressures were not the main problem in Russia, but they did cause concern because of Russia's insistence on the distinctive superiorities of a Russian tradition.

• Social protest was heightened by industrialization and the limitations of reform.

  • The peasant uprisings were caused by recurrent famines.

  • Peasants burned the records that indicated what they owed and deeply resented redemption payments.

• Many educated Russians clamored for revolutionary change, along with the rest of the population.

  • Two strands were developed.

  • Many business and professional people argued for liberal reforms such as greater freedom in the schools and the press, even though they were not very aggressive.

  • A Russian term for articulate intellectuals became more active.

• Russian universities expanded, student groups grew, and many were impatient with Russia's articulate intellectuals as a class, slow development, and visible restrictions on political activity.

  • Some 19th-century group of women students were bent on radical role in the protest current, and some of their demands were feminist.

• Intellectuals toned down their goals as they entered the bureaucracy.

• Some of the principles that had roused intellectuals in the West went deeper in Russia.

  • It was the first example of a kind of intellectual radicalism, capable of motivating terrorism, that would be seen in other societies during the 20th century.

  • The Russian intelligentsia wanted political freedom and deep social reform while maintaining a Russian culture that was different from the West.

  • The task they set themselves was to build a new society that would not reproduce the injustices and limitations of the Western world.

• Although abolition of all formal government was not new in the West, it took on particular force in Russia in opposition to tsar formed in many parts of europe.

  • In the late 19th and early 20th century, a host of upper-class radicals fanned out to teach the peasantry the beauty of political 20th century activism, as early as the 1860s.

  • Failure here led to the formation of the first russia, opposing tsarist autocracy large terrorist movement in the modern world.

  • assassinations and bombings were the only way to attack the existing order because of the lack of popular support.

  • General destruction was the only real goal of the anarchist leader.

  • Alexander hoped for a peasant revolution.

• There was no way to plan what would come next after tearing down the current framework.

• The tsarist regime's resolve to avoid further political change was strengthened by the recurrent waves of terrorism.

• Alexander II was worried that change was getting out of hand and was pulling back from reform.

  • Many dissidents were sent to Siberia after they were arrested for protesting.

  • Alexander II was assassinated by a terrorist bomb after a series of failed attempts.

  • His successors continued to oppose further political reform while increasing the effort to industrialize.

  • To gain the support of upper-class conserva tives, new measures of oppression were directed against minority nationalities.

  • The groups were watched carefully.

  • People such as Ukrainians were forced to learn the Russian language.

  • There were many pogroms and seizures of property as a result of the increased persecution of the large Jewish minority.

  • Many Russian Jews left the country.

• The currents of protest gained strength in the 1890s.

  • A segment of the Russian intelligentsia became committed to a proletarian revolution because of Marxist doctrine.

  • The brother of a bureaucratic family was hanged after being arrested by the political police and introduced important innovations in Marxist Better known as lenin.

  • He argued that because of the spread of international russian marxist leader, the world was developing in advance of industrialization.

  • Russia could have a proletarian revolution without going through a middle-class phase.

  • The leader of the Bolsheviks insisted on the importance of disciplined revolutionary cells that could maintain purity in 1917.

• The approach was ideal for the Russian party.

• Russian was far more radical than their Western counterparts.

  • Many of them had political goals in mind when they formed unions and con concept of social revolution.

  • The lack of legal political outlets contributed to the radicalism of a minority in the Russian marxist.

  • The political scheme was born from rural unrest until its triumph in the 1917 revolution.

• Many workers were not linked to any particular doctrine, but some became interested in Bolshevism and were urged on by passionate organizers.

• Russian society may have made revolution inevitable by 1900.