SG

DENSITY is the number of individuals per unit area

3 pattern types are Clumped, Random, and Uniform.

discuss several models for the proccess of succession

- there is a primary succession model and a secondary succession

- primary succession is when the colonizers start to appear but from soil and secondary succession is when low grubs and plants start to appear but only with rock no soil or grass.

List and explain the human impact on the carbon cycle with regards to global climate change

- human activities are putting out gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide from fertilizers and animal wastes, and Methane from bacterial decompasition in guts of aminals.

Tropical Rainforests PG 116

occur near the equator9 Wherever temperatures are above 26degrees and rainfall is regular and have) 

- Huge trees with buttressestrunks and broad, undivided, dark-green leaves predominate . 

- Woody vines are abundant

- they have dwindled from 14% to 6% of land surface, but still make a substantial contribution to global C)2 fixation. 

* tropical Rain forests contribute greatly to the uptake of CO2 and the productivity of photsynthesis because they are the most efficient of all terrestrial ecosystems.*

- The CO2 has increasesd from 0.028% to 0.038% ever since industrialzation began

- Climate patterns such as heatwaves, droughts, and storms including an increased number f hurricanes and tornadoes.

- increased amount of CO2 will cause an increase in photosynthesis in the remaining portion of the forest. 

What are some other advantages to preserving tropical rain forests aside from helping to prevent any further rise in CO2?

• More homes for animals and that means less extinctions of different species. The tropical rain forests carry many diverse animals and have a very big biodiversity of species. Additionally, by there being more animals it stables the CO becuase more species are breathing in the Carbon dioxide.
• Another avantage is better air for people, if we keep burning trees the air quality is decreasing as well. 

What can countries of the world that have no tropical rainforests do to help preserve them?

• They can stop burning fossil fuels, and stop putting carbon emissions into the air.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION Pg 769-770 

Ecological succession : A series of species replacements in a community following a disturbance is called ecological succession

• For example, the eruption of Mont St. Helens volcano, cleared an area of 350 km. 
• A few plants managed to survive because they were either covered by snow or by regrowing from underground roots. 
• Fireweed and Lupine specialized in colonizing disturbed areas joined the survivors.
• Other trees such as the lodgepole pine and the red alder have com eback in the succession proccess but it will still take more than 500 years for the blast zone to get back to the rich forest it once was.

PRIMARY SUCCESSION: occurs in areas where there is no soil present

• EX. A volcanic eruption or a glacial retreat

SECONDARY SUCCESSION: areas where soil is present 

• EX. a fire, harvesting, logging, or abandonment of land after a disease outbreak. 
• Succession in a particular area will always lead to the same types of commuity called a climax community

Clements believed that climate and soil conditions affected the results

• This is why COniferous forests occur in northern latitudes , decidous forests in temperate zones and tropicla rain forests in the tropics. 
• Soil condition also affected the results because shallow, dry soil will lead to a grassland while rich soil would be a rainforest
• A riverbank might produce a woodland where a prairie would be expected.

FACILITATION MODEL OF SUCCESSION

• grass-shrub-forest development occured sequentially

INHIBITION MODEL

• colonists hold onto their space and inhibit the growth of other plant until colonista die or are damaged.

TOLERANCE MODEL

• predicts that the different types of plants can colonize an area at the same time.

Succession is not always simple and most of the times is very complex with all different parts happening

Acid Deposition : Both sulfur dioxide from power plants and nitrogen oxides in automobile exhaust are converted to acids when they combine with water vapor in the atmosphere. These acids return to Earth as either wet deposition( acid rain or snow) or dry deposition( sulfate and nitrate salts). Acid deposition causes trees to weaken and increases their susceptibility to disease and insects. Many lakes in the northern United States are now lifeless because of the effects of acid deposition.

Ozone Depletion : The ozone shield is a layer of ozone( 03) in the stratosphere, some 50 km above the Earth. The ozone shield absorbs most of the wavelengths of harmful ultraviolet( UV) radiation so that they do not strike the Earth. The cause of ozone depletion can be traced to chlorine atoms( Cl-) that come from the breakdown of chlorofluorocarbons( CFCs). Severe ozone shield depletion can impair crop and tree growth and also kill plankton( microscopic plant and animal life) that sustain oceanic life. Due to an international agreement, manufacture of CFCs ceased in the United States in 1996, but the chemicals linger because they are chemically stable. The amount of depletion over Antarctica varies with weather conditions and the hole has actually decreased in 2012 to 1.1 million sq km compared to 18.5 million sq km 12 years ago. 

Organic Chemicals : Our modern society uses organic chemicals in all sorts of ways. Organic chemicals called nonylphenols are in products ranging from pesticides to dishwashing detergents,cosmetics, plastics, and spermicides. These chemicals mimic the effects of hormones and, in that way, most likely harm wildlife. Salmon are born in fresh water but mature in salt water. After investigators exposed young fish to nonylphenol, they found that 20-30% were unable to make the transition between fresh and salt Water. Nonylphenols cause the pituitary glands to produce prolactin, a hormone that may prevent saltwater adaptation.

SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 

we throw too much garbage and dont recycle enough

effect 1 garbage ends up in ocean, choking many species

Global Climate Change Recall that certain gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, are known as greenhouse gases because, just like the panes of a greenhouse, they allow solar radiation to passs through but hinder the escape of its heat back into space. Data collected around hw world show a steady rise in the concentration of the various greenhousee gases due to the burning of fossil fuels and forests. A rise in greenhouse gaes parallels a rise in global temperatures.

Direct Values

Wildlife has medicinal value

- Madagascar : a type of tropical plant that helps treats leukemia and Hodgkins disease.

- Penicillin : derived from fungus, help to treat sexually transmitted diseases such as gonorrhea and syphillis. 

- Horseshoe crab blood : contains a substance called limulus amoebocyte lysate, which is used to ensure that medical devices such as pacemakers, surgicalplants,and prosthetic devices are free of bacteria. 

Wildlife has agricultural value

- Crops such as wheat, corn and rice are derived from wild plants that have been modified to be high producers. 

- If the variety of wild rice had becoe ectinct before it was discovered, rice cultivation in Africa might have collapsed.

- Most fllowering plants are pollinates by animals, such as bees, wasps, butterflies, beetles, birds, and bats.

- HONEYBEES - has been domesticated and it pollinates about 10 billion worth of food crops annually in the US.

- The value of wild pollinators to the US agricultural economy has been calculated at $4.1 - $6.7 billion a year.

Wildlife had Consumptive Use Value

- Consumptive Use Value refers to non-market value of resources such as firewood, game meat, etc. Such resources are consumed directly, without passing through a market. They usually are not calculated (but often can be approximated). 

- By hunting and fising , people obtain meat directly from the environment. 

HabItat Loss and Species Extinctions

- Causes of Species extinction : Habitat loss

habitat loss is due to 85% of cases for species extinction

-  Other causes of extinction are introduction to alien species, pollution, overexploitation, and disease. 

EX. Macaws

- habitat loss had accured much in tropical rain forests and coral rees because they are particularly rich in species. Trees in rainforests are being cut down to accomodate for the new highways and industries. Basically industrialization is the reason why species homes are decreasing. 

- Small towns and industries springing up along the highway and roads branching off the main highway gave rise to even more roads resulted in fragmentation of the once immence forest. 

- tropical soils contain limited rnutrients, but when the trees are burned, nutrients are relaeased that support lush growth do that cattle can be grazed for abotu 3 years.  Once the land has been degraded, farmers move on to another portion of the forest and start over again. 

Ecosystems around the globe are characterized by unique assemblages of organisms that have evolved together in one location. Migrating to a new location is not usually possible because of barriers such as oceans, deserts, mountains, and rivers. Humans, however, have introduced alien species, nonnative members, into new ecosystems through the following means: 

 Colonization : Europeans, in particular, brought various familiar species with them when they colonized new places. For example, the pilgrims brought the dandelion to the United States as a familiar salad green. In addition, they introduced pigs that have become feral, reverting to their wild state. In some parts of the continental United States, feral pigs are very destructive, just as they are in Hawaii. Bringing invasive species when you colonize to new places

Horticulture and agriculture : Some aliens now taking over vast tracts of land have escaped from cultivated areas. Kudzu is a vine from Japan that the U.S. Department of Agriculture thought would help prevent soil erosion. The plant now covers much of the landscape in the South, including even walnut,magnolia, and sweet gum trees( Fig. 41.5A). The water hyacinth was introduced to the United States from South America because of its beautiful flowers. Today, it clogs waterways and diminishes natural diversity. Brought for agriculture, escaped desied area

 Accidental transport : Global trade and travel accidentally bring many new species from one country to another. Researchers found that the ballast water released from ships into Coos Bay, Oregon, contained 367 marine species from Japan. The zebra mussel from the Caspian Sea was accidentally introduced into the Great Lakes in 1988. It now forms dense beds that squeeze out native mussels. Other organisms accidentally introduced into the United States include the Formosan termite, the Argentinian fire ant, and the nutria, a type of rodent. global trade/travek accidently brought new species from one ocuntry to another.

Alien species can disrupt food webs. As mentioned earlier, opossum shrimp introduced into a lake in Montana added a trophic level that in the end meant less food for bald eagles and grizzly bears( see Fig. 41.1). Introduction of alien species, sometimes called exotic species, plays a role in nearly 50% of Video extinctions( see Fig. 41.4A).

Aliens on Islands Islands are particularly susceptible to environmental discord caused by the introduction of alien species. Islands have unique assemblages of native species that are closely adapted to one another and cannot compete well against aliens. Myrtle trees, Myrica faya, introduced into the Hawaiian Islands from the Canary Islands, are symbiotic with a type of bacterium that is capable of nitrogen fixation. This feature allows the species to establish itself on nutrient- poor volcanic soil, a distinct advantage in Hawaii. Once established, myrtle trees halt the normal succession of native plants on volcanic soil. The brown tree snake has been inadvertently introduced ontoa number of islands in the Pacific Ocean. The snake eats eggs, nestlings, and adult birds. On Guam, it has reduced ten native bird species to the point of extinction. On the Galápagos Islands, black rats have reduced populations of giant tortoises, while goats and feral pigs have changed the vegetation from highland forest to pampaslike grasslands and destroyed stands of cactus. In Australia, mice and rabbits have stressed native marsupial populations. In Hawaii, mongooses introduced to control rats also prey on native birds( Fig. 41.5B) and feral pigs continue to devastate forests. The pigs especially seem to prefer eating native species and their wal lows allow other alien species to spread. Exterminating the pigs would be helpful but native peoples are opposed because they use them as a source of food. Fencing is being used to keep them out of national parks, however.

4 PRINCIPLES

1. We need biodiersity to survive, essential to planet
2. Extinctions caused by humans are undesireable
3. Complex interactions support biodiversity, desirable
4. Biodiversity through evolution changes has value

Biodiversity- variety of life on earth

Extinction- total dissapearance of a species on earth

Endangered species- danger of immediate extinction

Threatened species- likely to become endangered in the near future.

renewable energy- capable of being naturally replenished - ex. wind power

nonrenewable energy - limited supply, cant be replenished 

- coal, oil, gas- air pollution

- nuclear power - gives off radiation that causes health problems

LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION

1. genetic: variations that occur among members of a population. Population with a high genetic diversityis likely to have some individuals that can survive a change in the structure of their ecosystem. If a species population is quite small and isolated then their more likely to become extinct because of a loss of genetic diversity. As organisms become more threatened and endangered they lose their genetic diversity
2. ecosystem diversity : The variations of ecosystems in the biosphere. Saving an entire ecosystem can save many sppecies, as well as disrupting an ecosystem threatens the existence of more than one species. 
3. Landscape diversity: Involves a group of interactinf ecosystems within a landscape, like plains, rivers, and mountains. Any of these ecosystems can be fragments that they are only connected by strips of land that allow organisms to move from one ecosystem to the other. Fragmentation of the landscape reduced reproductive capacity and food availability and can disrupt seasonal behaviors. 
4. Distribution of Biodiversity : biodiversity is higher in the tropics, while it is lower towards the poles. Therefore wheremore diversity of species and plant are is called landscape diversity also known as hotspots.

Protcting certain areas help more species

TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS

OVEREXPLOITATIONS- when the # of individual taken from a population is so great that the overall population decreases 

• when the carrying capacity exceed and then the people who only think of themselves actually hurt everybody in the end
• resources tend to be overused and undermaintaned.
• Common in fishing - too many fishes are caught sometimes even other animals such as dolphins and bottomm feeding dwellers tthat end up dying as they go back into the ocean as well as the fishes actually going extinct.
• accounts for about 17% of extinctions

SUSTAINABLE SOCIETY: Protects biodiersity, saves for future, uses renewable energy, saves environment. 

Natural ecosystem- renewable energy, material cycling through for years, 

- EX. Coral reefs survived for millions of years

WHAT CAN BE DONE

1. Multiuse farming
2. Integrated pest management
3. conservation of water
4. energy efficient transportation
5. recycle/compost
6. wetland preservation

EFFICIENCY IS KEY TO SUSTAINABILITY

1. The Carbon Cycle

   1. photosynthesis and cellular respiration are the basis of this cycle

   2. plants and autotrophs use CO2 , water, solar energy , to make sugars(carbohydrates)

   3. autotrophs and heterotrophs make use of oxygen to break sugars with cellular respiration

      1. byproducts of CR are carbon dioxide and water

   4. decomposers release carbon when they break down organic compounds

   5. carbon dioxide can also be released through combustion.

      1.  carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by 30%

      2. because of burning fossil fuels(coal, oil, natural gas) as an energy source

      3. fossil fuels- remains of organism which have transformed  by decay, heat, and pressure into energy rich molecules

      4. deforestation - also the cause of excess of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

         1. since the plants are cut for land for agriculture, there is less plants to take in carbon dioxide for photosynthesis

1. biotic factors-  living feature, animals, plants, 

2. species- is a group of organisms that can potentially interbreed to produce fertile offspring

3. Biosphere- narrow belt around the Earth containing all the Earth’s living organisms

4. random sampling- a technique in which every possible sample of a given size has the same chance of survival (unbiased)

5. biological species- a group of species that can reproduce

Density and Dispersion:

Density- number of individuals per unit area

units are like trees per acre, moose per kilometer, zooplankton per meter. parasites per fish, etc

Dispersion - pattern of distribution of organisms in space

1. Random: resource distributed evenly or sporadically

   1. plants with wind distributed seeds

   2. individual loner species

2. Clumped: when resources are pathy

   1. social and herder, etc

   2. most common

3. Uniform: spread in a fairly regular pattern

   1. where individuals compete for water/ light- can’t all be on top(need specific space)

   2. root issue- man made crops

Biomes

1. Tundra

   1. tree growth  hindered by low temp and short growing seasons

2. Taiga

   1.  called Boreal forest and snow forest

   2. has many coniferous trees, such as pines, and spruces

3. Savannah 

   1. grassland with tree that are spread out

   2. lots of sunlight = lots of vegetation

4. Desert

   1. barren land with very light precipitation

   2. condition hostile for living plants and animals

5. Deciduous trees

   1. have trees that lose their leaves each year

   2. warm moist summers, and mild winters

6. Rainforest 

   1. rich in plants and life

   2. high biodiversity

   3. tropical areas

   4. lots of rainfall

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