Section 1.5 Levers
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FIGURE 1.8 Drawing of a muscle.
To compute the forces exerted by muscles, the various joints in the body can be conveniently analyzed in terms of levers. Such a representation impliessome simplifying assumptions. We will assume that the tendons are connectedto the bones at well-defined points and that the joints are frictionless.
Simplifications are often necessary to calculate the behavior of systems in the real world. Seldom are all the properties of the system known, and evenwhen they are known, consideration of all the details is usually not necessary.
Calculations are most often based on a model, which is assumed to be a goodrepresentation of the real situation.
1.5
Levers fulcrum. Theposition of the fulcrum is fixed so that it is not free to move with respect to


10
Chapter 1 Static Forces
There are three classes of levers, as shown in Fig. 1.9. In a Class 1 lever, the fulcrum is located between the applied force and the load. A crowbar is anexample of a Class 1 lever. In a Class 2 lever, the fulcrum is at one end of thebar; the force is applied to the other end; and the load is situated in between.
A wheelbarrow is an example of a Class 2 lever. A Class 3 lever has thefulcrum at one end and the load at the other. The force is applied betweenthe two ends. As we will see, many of the limb movements of animals areperformed by Class 3 levers.
It can be shown from the conditions for equilibrium (see Appendix A) that, for all three types of levers, the force F required to balance a load of weightW is given by F Wd1 ,
(1.6)
d2
where d1 and d2 are the lengths of the lever arms, as shown in Fig. 1.9 (seeExercise 1-2). If d1 is less than d2, the force required to balance a load issmaller than the load. The mechanical advantage M of the lever is defined as M W d2 .
(1.7)
F
d1
Depending on the distances from the fulcrum, the mechanical advantage of aClass 1 lever can be greater or smaller than one. By placing the load close tothe fulcrum, with d1 much smaller than d2, a very large mechanical advantagecan be obtained with a Class 1 lever. In a Class 2 lever, d1 is always smallerthan d2; therefore, the mechanical advantage of a Class 2 lever is greater thanone. The situation is opposite in a Class 3 lever. Here d1 is larger than d2;
therefore, the mechanical advantage is always less than one.
FIGURE 1.9 The three classes of lever.

