6. A New Nation

Philadelphians turned out for a "grand federal pro " The Federal Pillars" from the cession" in honor of the new national constitution.

The library symbolically beat swords into farm tools.

The Potters carried a sign that said "The potter has power over his clay" and linked God's power with an artisan's work and a citizen's control over the country.

Clergymen marched with Jewish rabbis.

Americans would celebrate more of these pa triotic holidays over the next few years.

Thousands of people gathered in New York to see George Washington take the oath of office.

The new nation wasn't as cohesive as it could have been.

The country was often not unified despite the officials of the new federal government and the people who supported them.

The Constitution was a controversial document that was adopted to strengthen the government.
The new nation looked to the future with uncertainty.
The United States faced a threat of collapse less than two years before the national celebrations of 1789.

After the Revolution ended, thousands of farmers in western Massachusetts were struggling with debt.

Weak local and national economies made their problems worse.
Many political leaders saw the debt and the struggling economy as a consequence of the Articles of Confederation, which gave the federal government no way to raise revenue and made Daniel Shays a divisive figure.

A new NAtIoN is needed to unify the nation.

The farmers wanted the Massachusetts government to protect them from their debts, but the state supported them.
Many farmers, including Revolutionary War veterans, took up arms when their property was threatened to be foreclosed on.

The "Shaysites" formed blockades around courthouses to keep judges from issuing foreclosure orders and were led by a veteran named Daniel Shays.

The protesters saw their cause and their methods as an extension of the "spirit of 1776", they were protecting their rights and demanding compensation for the people's grievances.

The Shaysites were seen as rebels who wanted to rule the government through violence.

He ordered thousands of militiamen to clear them.
The state force was led by a former Revolutionary general, Benjamin Lincoln, who wanted Massachusetts to prevent a state of anarchy, confusion and slavery.
Lincoln's militia arrested more than one thousand Shaysites and reopened the courts in January 1787.

Shays and most of his followers received pardons after they were indicted for treason and sentenced to death.

The Shays' Rebellion generated intense national debate.
Thomas Jefferson thought "a little rebellion now and then" helped keep the country free, but others thought the nation was sliding toward anarchy.
Shays' Rebellion was an example of why the country needed a strong central government.
Madison warned that the abuses of liberty as well as the abuses of power could endanger liberty.
In the summer of 1787, delegates from twelve of the thirteen states met at the Pennsylvania state house.
Rhode Island did not send a representative.
The delegates were told to revise the Articles of Confederation.

The federal government's inability to collect taxes was the biggest problem the convention had to solve.

The burden of paying back debt from the Revolutionary War fell on the states.

The states were beholden to the people who bought their war bonds.

James Madison had no intention of simply revising the Ar ticles of Confederation.
He wanted to create a new constitution.
He completed two research projects in the previous year, one on the history of government in the United States and the other on the history of republics around the world.
The proposal he brought with him to Philadelphia was based on this research.
The Virginia Plan was named after Madison's home state.
Classical learning said that a repub James Madison lican form of government required a small and homogenous state, like the Roman republic or a small country likeDenmark.
The citizens configuration of who were too far apart or different could not govern themselves.
The United States needed a government according to conventional wisdom.

Madison's weak central government, which should represent the states ginia Plan, was on some of the same issues.

Power should remain at guiding document in the formation of the state or local level.
Madison's research led him in a different direction.
He thought it was possible to create an extended republic.

Every state would be represented in one of the two houses of the congress.

Some delegates to the convention agreed with Madison that the Articles of Confederation had failed.
They didn't agree on what kind of government should replace them.
They disagreed about the best method of representation.
Representation was an important issue that influenced a number of decisions, including how the national executive branch should work, what specific powers the federal government should have, and even what to do about the divisive issue of slavery.

Each state had a single vote in the Continental Congress.

New Jersey and Delaware wanted to keep things the same.
Roger Sherman argued that members of Congress should be appointed by the state legislature.
Sherman said that ordinary voters were liable to be misled and that they should have little to do about most national decisions.
Since the Virginia Plan would greatly increase the powers of the national government, representation should be drawn directly from the public.
He warned that no government could survive without the people's confidence.
Roger Sherman suggested a compromise.
Each state would have one vote in the Senate, which became the upper house of Congress, in which members were assigned based on population.
Each state would have two senators who could vote on their own under the proposal adopted after months of debate.
The compromise established both types of representation and also counted a slave as three fifths of a person for tax purposes.

The delegates decided on the form of the national executive branch.

On June 1, James Wilson moved that the national executive power reside in one person.
The proposal came four years after the American Revolution and conjured up images of an elected monarchy.
The president would be elected by a special electoral college after they debated these questions for months.

It was a very controversial scheme.

The Constitutional Convention was assembled.

The convention voted to send the proposed Constitution to Congress with a cover letter from George the Convention.

Voters in different states should oppose it.

George Mason, the author of Virginia's state Dec 3.0 Unported, had a pro Commons Attribution-Share Alike proposal voted down by the Constitutional Convention.

A New NAtIoN 149 was a rallying point for opponents.

Many of the Anti-Federalists argued that American citizens risked losing their liberty if they didn't have a guarantee of specific rights.
The pro-ratification Federalists argued that including a bill of rights was redundant and could limit future citizens from adding new rights.

The first crucial vote took place in Massachusetts.

After weeks of debate, delegates at the Massachusetts convention changed their votes to approve the Constitution.

The proposed amendments were to be submitted to the first Congress.
ratifying the Constitution but attaching proposed amendments was followed by other state conventions.

James Madison, Edmund Randolph, and John Marshall squared off against Patrick Henry and George Mason at the most high-profile convention in Virginia in June of 1787.

Virginia was America's most populous state, it produced some of the country's highest-profile leaders, and the success of the new government rested on its cooperation.
After nearly a month of debate, Virginia voted 89 to 79 in favor of the constitution.
This didn't mean the debates were over.
AntiFederalists still argued that the Constitution would lead to tyranny despite the fact that North Carolina, New York, and Rhode Island had not completed their convention.
After George Washington was inaugurated as president, Rhode Island would vote to approve the Constitution by two votes.

Washington's election as president solidified the Constitution's authority.

The debates produced a piece of the Constitution that is still relevant today.
There were ten amendments added.
The Bill of Rights is constituted by them.
James Madison supported the amendments as an act of political compromise and necessity.
He was elected to the House of Representatives because he promised his Virginia constituents a list of rights.

The Bill of Rights didn't cover everything.

There was no guarantee of a voice in government for women.
Men who owned a lot of property were the only ones who were restricted from voting.
Slavery was protected by the Constitution.

The compromise over the slave trade is the most important of the compromises that formed the Constitution.

The slave trade was thought to be more violent and immoral by Americans.

Many people opposed it on moral grounds.
Allowing southern states to import more Africans would increase their political power.
In districts with many slaves, the white voters had more sway because the Constitution counted each black individual as three fifths of a person.
The Upper South welcomed a ban on the Atlantic trade because they had a surplus of slaves.
Slave owners in Virginia and Maryland were able to get higher prices for their slaves when they sold them to states that were dependent on the slave trade.

The Deep South and New England agreed to a "dirty compromise" at the Constitutional Convention in 1787.

South Carolina and Georgia agreed to support a constitutional clause that made it easier for Congress to pass commercial legislation in exchange for New England agreeing to include a constitutional provision that protected the foreign slave trade for twenty years.
The Atlantic slave trade was banned for three reasons.

The United States did not want to concede moral superiority to Britain, which was outlawing the slave trade in 1807.

The Haitian Revolution, a successful slave revolt against French colonial rule in the West Indies, changed the stakes in the debate.
White Americans were terrified by the image of black revolutionaries.

The United States purchased the Louisiana Territory from the French at a fire-sale price.

The question of slavery's expansion was put at the top of the national agenda by this massive new territory.
Many white Americans, including President Thomas Jefferson, believed that the abolition of the slave trade would keep the United States a white man's republic.

Alexander Hamilton saw measures and funding for the slave trade ban.

The act left the fate of illegally imported Africans to the individual states and many of those as a metropolitan, commercial, state.
The logic of property ownership in human beings was preserved by the ban.
Slavery was protected by the new federal government as much as it was by Thomas Jefferson's nation of small privileges for white men.
Both men had the ear of the President.

Humans were driven to accumulate property by their self-interest.

The government had important roles to play.

Private property should be protected from theft.

Hamilton said that the state should use human "passions" and make them subservient to the public good.
A wise government would harness its citizens' desire for property so that both private individuals and the state would benefit.

Hamilton did not believe that the state should ensure an equal distribution of property.

Hamilton saw no reason why inequality should change.
Hamilton wanted to tie the economic interests of wealthy Americans to the federal government's financial health.
Hamilton believed that the federal government should be a repository of the rights of the wealthy.
He was the nation's first secretary of the treasury and proposed an ambitious financial plan to achieve that.

The federal "assumption" of state debts was the first part of Hamilton's plan.

The states owe the federal government about $25 million.
The Bank of the United States was proposed by Hamilton.

The goal was to link federal power with the economy.

People who owned state bonds or promissory notes would be given new federal notes of the same face value under the proposal.
Hamilton believed that these bonds would act as an instrument of industry and commerce.
This part of his plan was controversial for two reasons.

Many taxpayers objected to paying the full face value on old notes, which had fallen in market value.

The current holders would often purchase them from the original creditor for pennies on the dollar.
It would mean rewarding speculators at taxpayer expense to pay them at full face value.
The citizens would lose their trust in the government if debts were not honored in full.

Many southerners objected to the federal assumption that they had already paid their state debts.

Congress and President Washington both accepted Hamilton's argument.
Hamilton's plan for a Bank of the United States won approval despite strong opposition, despite the fact that 98 percent of the country's domestic debt had been converted into new federal bonds by the end of 1794.
The plan was unconstitutional because the Constitution did not authorize Congress to create a bank.
Hamilton argued that the bank was important for the country's prosperity.
Several needs would be fulfilled by the Bank of the United States.
It would be a good depository for federal funds.
The paper would be backed by gold or silver.
Its agents would help control inflation by periodically taking state bank notes to their banks of origin and demanding specie in exchange, limiting the amount of notes the state banks printed.
Wealthy people would have a vested interest in the federal government's finances.
Private investors would own 80% of the bank's stock, while the government would control 20%.
An intimate connexion between the government and wealthy men would benefit both, and this connection would promote American commerce.

Congress approved a twenty-year charter for the Bank of the United States.

Over $70 million in new financial instruments were created by the bank's stock and federal bonds.
The federal government was able to borrow more money due to the formation of securities markets in the 1790s.
This was a major purpose of the federal government for the Federalists.
Hamilton's system seemed to reinforce class boundaries and give the rich inordinate power over the federal government, for opponents who wanted a more limited role for industry, or who lived on the frontier and lacked access to capital.

Hamilton's plan was highly controversial.

Reliable sources of tax revenue were needed for the federal government to pay what it owed on the new bonds.
A federal excise tax on the production, sale, and consumption of a number of goods was proposed by Hamilton.

In the West, it was more profitable to sell grain to a local distillery than it was to ship it to eastern markets.

The whiskey tax placed a special burden on western farmers.
It seemed to divide the young republic into two parts--geographically between the East and West, economically between merchants and farmers, and culturally between cities and the countryside.

In the fall of 1791, sixteen men dressed in women's clothes attacked a tax collector.

The local deputy marshals were tarred and feathered as well.
The rebel farmers used protest methods from the Revolution and Shays' Rebellion.
The region's tax collections went down for the next two years.

At least two tax collector's homes were burned down in July 1794 when armed farmers attacked federal mar shals.

An armed force of seven thousand, led by the radical attorney David Bradford, robbed the U.S. mail and gathered about eight miles east of Pittsburgh at the end of the month.

President Washington responded quickly.

Pennsylvanians are trying to bring about a peaceful resolution by meeting with the rebels.

He gathered an army of militiamen in Pennsylvania.
Henry Lee, a Revolutionary hero and the current governor of Virginia, took over the army from Washington on September 19 after he became the only sitting president to lead troops in the field.

The farmers scattered as the federal army moved.

Alexander Hamilton wanted to show federal authority and oversaw the arrest and trial of a number of rebels.
Most of the people sentenced to death for treason were pardoned by the president after they were released because of a lack of evidence.
The Whiskey Rebellion showed the federal government's ability to deal with internal unrest.

Another national issue aroused fierce pro test around the same time.

Along with his vision of a strong financial system, Hamilton also had a vision of a nation engaged in foreign trade.
He wanted to pursue a friendly relationship with Great Britain.

The relationship between Britain and America has been tense since the end of the Revolution.

The impressment of men into Britain's navy frightened American sailors.

American trade could be risky and expensive.

President Washington was aware of the weakness of the American people and did not want to take sides.

In April 1793, he officially declared that the United States would remain neutral, and his political ally John Jay went to London to negotiate a treaty that would satisfy both Britain and the United States.

These negotiations were opposed by Jefferson and Madison.

They distrusted Britain because they thought the American state was favoring Britain over France.
Republicans thought the United States should be happy to have friendship with a new revolutionary state after the French had overthrown their monarchy.
They thought a treaty with Britain would favor the north over the south.

John Jay signed a "treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation" with the British.

Jay's Treaty required Britain to abandon its military positions in the Northwest Territory by 1796.
British merchants will be compensated for their losses.
In return, the United States agreed to treat Britain as its most prized trade partner.
The treaty was a significant accomplishment for the Federalists.
Jay's Treaty gave the United States a relatively weak power, the ability to stay neutral in European wars, and preserved American prosperity.
The treaty was proof of treachery for Jefferson's Republicans.
The Federalists had sided with a monarchy against a republic, and they had submitted to British influence in American affairs.
The debate over the treaty transformed the Republicans and the Federalists into two different political parties.

In the wake of Shays' Rebellion, the Whiskey Rebellion, and other internal protests, the Federalists sought to preserve social stability.

Their concerns seemed to be justified by the course of the French Revolution.

The French revolted against their king in 1789.

The queen and king were beheaded in a public ceremony in 1793, as depicted in the engraving.

The execution of King Louis XVI was seen by many Americans as an example of the chaos and savagery of France at the time.

The returning French heroes who took part in the American Revolution carried a New NAtIoN 157 from America to Europe.

Most Americans had praised the French Revolution.

On July 14th, towns all over the country hosted speeches and parades to commemorate the day it began.

Men pinned revolutionary cockades to their hats and women wore neoclassical dress to honor republican principles.
The French ambassador to the United States arrived in the United States in April 1793.
Americans greeted him with enthusiasm during his tour.
Citizen Genet wanted Americans to attack Spain's colonies in Florida and Louisiana.
Genet threatened to appeal directly to the American people.
Washington demanded that France recall its diplomat.
Genet's group had lost power in France.
He decided to stay in America because of the risk of a return home.

Genet's intuition was correct.

There was a coalition of revolutionaries in France.
They started a bloody purge of their enemies.
Many Americans had second thoughts about the French Revolution after learning about Genet's misdeeds.

The French Revolution worried Americans so much that they became Federalists.

Those who were still hopeful about the revolution became Republicans.
Thomas Jefferson declared that he would rather see half the earth desolate than see the French Revolution fail.
It would be better if Adam and Eve were left in every country.
The Federalists sought closer ties with Britain.

The United States peacefully elected a new president in 1796 despite the political rancor.

The country did not descend into anarchy as a result of Washington stepping down.

Washington's vice president was John Adams.

Adams was less popular than the general and he was in charge of a divided nation.

He was tested by the foreign crisis.

The French government authorized attacks on American shipping in response to Jay's Treaty.

In 1797, President Adams sent envoys to France.
The diplomats were insulted by the French.
The Americans code-named the officials X, Y, and Z in their correspondence, suggesting that negotiations could only begin after the Americans offered a bribe.
The story angered American citizens when it became public.
Dozens of towns wrote to President Adams to support him against France.
People were eager for war.
South Carolina representative Robert GoodloeHarper said "millions for defense" but not one cent for tribute.

The people of Charleston worried about the arrival of the French navy because of the ocean's horizon.

Many people are worried that the same ships that aided Americans during the Revolutionary War could discharge an invasion force on their shores.
Some southerners believed that the force would consist of black troops from France's Caribbean colonies, who would attack the southern states and cause their slaves to revolt.
Many Americans were concerned that France had covert agents.
In the streets of Charleston, armed bands of young men searched for French disorganizers.
New Englanders were some of the most outspoken opponents of France during the crisis.
There was a new reason for Francophobia in 1798.
Jedidiah Morse, a minister in Massachusetts, told his congregation that the French Revolution was the result of a conspiracy.
The French Quasi-War, as it would come to be known, was fought on the Atlantic, mostly between the French naval.
Members of Congress took action to prevent internal subversion during the crisis because of the high anxiety about foreign agents.
The Alien and Sedition Acts were controversial.
The laws passed in 1798 were intended to prevent French agents from compromising America's resistance, but they also attacked Americans who criticized the president.

The Alien Act allowed the federal government to deport foreign nationals who posed a national security threat.

The laws were brought on by more than war hysteria.

The nature of the American Revolution and the limits of liberty are assumptions that they have made.
Most of the advocates for the Constitution and the First Amendment accepted that free speech simply meant a lack of prior censorship or restraint, not a guarantee against punishment.
According to this logic, unruly speech made society less free.
Every author is responsible for the security or welfare of the government, argued James Wilson, one of the principal architects of the Constitution.
Most of the Federalists agreed in 1798.
Several Republican printers and a Republican congressman who criticized President Adams were indicted and prosecuted under the terms of the Sedition Act.
The Alien Act's passage was enough to convince some foreign nationals to leave the country.
The Alien and Sedition Acts were seen by the president and most other Federalists as a continuation of conservatism.

The Alien and Sedition Acts caused a backlash.

The opponents articulated a new vision for liberty.

Many Americans began to argue that free speech meant the ability to say virtually.

The op position from state governments was organized by James Madison and Thomas Jefferson.

Both of them had supported the principle behind the Sedition Act in the past.
In 1789, Jefferson wrote to Madison that citizens should be punished for speaking "false facts" that hurt the country.
In 1798, Jefferson made this point in a resolution.
The Virginia legislature adopted a document written by Madison.

The national government's authority was limited to the powers granted in the U.S. Constitution according to the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.

They said the states could declare federal laws unconstitutional.
The chApter 6 resolutions were just gestures of defiance.
Important effects would come from their bold claim.

Many Americans' feelings toward France had changed in a few years.

Many Americans feared the "contagion" of French-style liberty because they were not rejoicing in the "light of freedom".
The debates over the French Revolution gave Americans a chance to articulate what it meant to be American.

Many conflicts of the nineteenth century would rest on this cracked foundation.

The debates over the French Revolution were so heated because Americans were unsure about their religious future.

The 1798 scare of the Illuminati was just one example of this fear.
A shift in attitudes toward religion and government began in the United States.

The American state governments did not observe the rationa of church and state in 1776.

All thirteen states had established, official, and tax-supported state churches, or at least required their officeholders to profess a certain faith.
Most officials believed it was necessary to protect morality and social order.
That changed over the next six decades.
Massachusetts stopped supporting an official religious group in the 19th century.

Disestablishment began before the creation of the Constitution in many states.

South Carolina dropped denominational restrictions in its 1778 constitution, despite being nominally Anglican before the Revolution.
It now allowed any church with at least fifteen adult males to become "incorporated" or be recognized for tax purposes as a state-supported church.
Churches needed to agree to a set of basic Christian theological tenets, which were vague enough that most denominations could support them.34 South Carolina tried to balance religious freedom with the religious practice that was supposed to be necessary for social order.
Officeholders were expected to be Christians, they were compelled by their religious beliefs to tell the truth, and they were called to live according to the Bible.
A list of minimal requirements was used to define acceptable Christianity in many states.
Between 1780 and 1840, more and more Christians fell outside the definition.

The establishment clause and religious restrictions on officeholders were removed from South Carolina's general establishment law in 1790.

Many states continued to support an established church into the 19th century.
The federal constitution did not prevent this.
The Bill of Rights limited the federal government but not the state governments.
The state supreme court decision ended Massachusetts's support for the church.

The relationship between church and state was seen as a tool of oppression by many political leaders.

Jefferson's bill to establish a Statute for Religious Freedom failed in the Virginia state assembly.
The bill that would have given equal revenue to all Protestant churches was defeated by Madison.
Virginia wouldn't use public money to support religion.
"The Religion of every man must be left to the conviction and conscience of every man, and it is the right of every man to exercise it as these may dictate," Jefferson wrote.

The delegates to the Constitutional Convention of 1787 agreed that the national government should not have an official religion.

The First Amendment guaranteed religious liberty.
The limits of federal disestablishment needed to be discussed.
Native American missionaries were supported by the federal government.
In the 19th century, there was a debate about whether the postal service should operate on Sundays or not.
Americans were confused about what it meant for Congress not to establish a religion.

They were not effective at suppressing dissent.

The first peaceful transfer of power from one political party to another took place in the year 1800.

The year was important because the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. was finally opened to be occupied by Congress, the Supreme Court, the Library of Congress, and the courts of the District of Columbia.

President Adams lost the trust of many Americans by 1800.

He had issued a national thanksgiving proclamation in 1798.
Adams and his family were forced to flee the capital city of Philadelphia until the day was over, instead of enjoying a day of celebration and thankfulness.
He was at odds with Alexander Hamilton, the leader of his own party, because of his prickly independence.
Adams was reviled after four years in office.

The Republicans defeated Adams in the presidential election of 1800.

One newspaper article predicted that a Republican victory would fill America with "murder, robbery, rape, adultery, and incest."

The contest came down to a tie between two Republicans, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia and Aaron Burr of New York, who each had 73 electoral votes.

Under the Constitution's original rules, a tie-breaking vote had to take place in the House of Representatives if Burr was to be a candidate for vice president.
The Federalists were bitter at Jefferson.
There were many times when House members voted without breaking the tie.
Thomas Jefferson won on the thirty-sixth ballot.

Republicans thought they had saved the United States.

They thought of their victory as a revolution because of the Constitution and political theory.
The letter refers to a 1796 correspondence that criticized the Federalists and President Washington.

The Republicans thought they were fighting to save the country from an aristocracy, not just taking part in a normal constitutional process.

Thomas Jefferson offered an olive branch in his inaugural address.

He promised to follow the will of the American majority, but to respect the rights of the Federalist minority.
His election set a precedent.

Adams left the White House peacefully after losing the election.

Jefferson wrote that the revolution of 1800 did for American principles what the Revolution of 1776 had done.

The revolution was accomplished by the speach of the people, not by the sword.
When the Twelfth Amendment changed the rules for presidential elections to prevent future deadlocks, it was designed to accommodate the way political parties worked.

Despite Adams and Jefferson's attempts to tame party politics, the tension between federal power and the liberties of states and individuals would exist long into the nineteenth century.

While Jefferson's administration tried to decrease federal influence, Chief Justice John Marshall worked to increase the Supreme Court's authority.

Adams had appointed several men to serve as justices of the peace in Washington, D.C. at the last minute.

James Madison, Jefferson's secretary of state, refused to deliver the federal commission to the men Adams had appointed.
The case of several appointees, including William Marbury, was argued before the Supreme Court.

Marshall made a clever ruling using Marbury's case.

The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the Jefferson administration on the issue of the commissions.
The Supreme Court has the right to decide if an act of Congress violates the Constitution, according to Chief Justice Marshall.
The court assumed the power of judicial review.
This was a major blow to the Republican agenda, especially after 1810, when the Supreme Court ex A New NAtIoN 165 tended to state laws.
Jefferson argued that the power of judicial review would make the Judiciary a dictatorship.

The United States was engulfed by a debate over political power.

The Constitution made it possible for a strong federal government to tax, wage war, and make law, but it couldn't resolve the many conflicting constituencies of the young nation.

The Whiskey Rebellion showed that the nation could stifle dissent, but also expose a new threat to liberty.
The nation was provided with credit by Hamilton's banking system.
The Constitution's guarantee of religious liberty was not compatible with popular prerogatives.

As the 1790s progressed, Americans became bitterly divided over political parties and foreign wars.

Alexander Hamilton wrote about the wonders of the Constitution during the debates.

He said that the establishment of a Constitution by the voluntary consent of a whole people is a miracle.
40 Anti-Federalists had grave concerns about the Constitution, but they could celebrate the idea of national unity.
Even the most ardent critics would agree with Hamilton's views about the Constitution.
Washington's farewell address could also be taken by these same individuals to heart.

He conceded that this was probably true, but he said that the danger was not too little partisanship, but too much.

"A fire not to be quenched demands a uniform vigilance to prevent its bursting into a flame, and instead of warming, it should consume," Washington warned.

For every parade, thanksgiving proclamation, or grand procession honoring the unity of the nation there was a political controversy reminding American citizens of how fragile their union was.

As party differences and regional quarrels tested the federal government, the new nation explored the limits of its democracy.

Content contributions were made by Marco Basile, Nathaniel C. Green, Michael Harrison Taylor, Jordan Taylor, Kevin Wisniewski, and Ben Wright.

ch A p ter 6 1.

During the convention, Madison took an active role.

He was the one who shaped historians' understandings of the convention by taking notes.
Many of the quotes come from Madison's notes.

August 14, 1795, Ratified by the United States.

October 28, 1795, Ratified by Great Britain.
Ratifications were exchanged at London in 1795.

"From Thomas Jefferson to William Short on January 3, 1793," found ers online.

"An Act for the Punishment of Certain Crimes Against the United States" was added to the Alien Act on July 14, 1798.

The first generation of Americans were in charge of the revolution.

Madison's hand was used to Revising the Constitutional Convention.