Section 16.5
X-rays
249
16.5
X-rays
He called this radiation X-rays. It was shown subsequently that X-rays areshort-wavelength, electromagnetic radiation emitted by highly excited atoms.
Roentgen showed that X-rays could expose film and produce images of objectsin opaque containers. Such pictures are possible if the container transmitsX-rays more readily than the object inside. A film exposed by the X-raysshows the shadow cast by the object.
Within three weeks of Roentgen’s announcement, two French physicians, Oudin and Barth´elemy, obtained X-rays of bones in a hand. Since then,X-rays have become one of the most important diagnostic tools in medicine.
With current techniques, it is even possible to view internal body organs thatare quite transparent to X-rays. This is done by injecting into the organ a fluidopaque to X-rays. The walls of the organ then show up clearly by contrast.
X-rays have also provided valuable information about the structure of biologically important molecules. The technique used here is called crystallography. The wavelength of X-rays is on the order of 10−10 m, about thesame as the distance between atoms in a molecule or crystal. Therefore, ifa beam of X-rays is passed through a crystal, the transmitted rays produce adiffraction pattern that contains information about the structure and composition of the crystal. The diffraction pattern consists of regions of high and lowX-ray intensity which when photographed show spots of varying brightness(Fig. 16.8).
FIGURE 16.8 Arrangement for detecting diffraction of X-rays by a crystal.
Chapter 16
Atomic Physics
If the crystal has a simple structure—such as sodium chloride, for example—the X-ray diffraction pattern is also simple and relatively easy tointerpret. Complicated crystals, however, such as those synthesized fromorganic molecules, produce very complex diffraction patterns. But, even inthis case, it is possible to obtain some information about the structure of themolecules forming the crystal (for details, see [16-1]). To resolve the threedimensional features of the molecules, diffraction patterns must be formedfrom thousands of different angles. The patterns are then analyzed, with theaid of a computer. These types of studies provided critical information forthe determination of the structure for penicillin, vitamin B12, DNA, and manyother biologically important molecules.
16.6
X-ray Computerized Tomography tomographic techniques (CT scans) have been developedto produce slice-images within the body which provide depth information.
(Tomography is from the Greek word tomos meaning section.) Presently themost commonly used of these is X-ray computerized tomography (CT scan)developed in the 1960s. The basic principle of the technique in its simplestform is illustrated in Fig. 16.9a and b. A thin beam of X-rays passes throughthe plane we want to visualize and is detected by a diametrically opposingdetector. For a given angle with respect to the object (in this case the head),the X-ray source-detector combination is moved laterally scanning the regionof interest as shown by the arrow in Fig. 16.9a. At each position, the detectedsignal carries integrated information about X-ray transmission properties ofthe full path in this case A−B. The angle is then changed by a small amount(about 1◦) and the process is repeated full circle around the object. As indicated in Fig. 16.9b, by rotating the source-detector combination, informationcan be obtained about the intersection points of the X-ray beams.

Section 16.6
X-ray Computerized Tomography
251
FIGURE 16.9 (a) Basic principle of computed axial tomography. (b) Rotation of the source-detector combination provides information about the X-ray transmissionproperties of each point within the plane of the object to be studied.
In Fig. 16.9b, we show schematically the scanning beam at two angles with two lateral positions at each angle. While at each position, the detected signalcarries integrated information about the full path, two paths that intersect contain common information about the one point of intersection. In the figure,four such points are shown at the intersection of the beams A−B, A − B −D, and C −D . The multiple images obtained by translation and rotation contain information about the X-ray transmission properties of each pointwithin the plane of the object to be studied. These signals are stored and by arather complex computer analysis a point by point image is constructed of thethin slice scanned within the body.
The visualized slices within the body obtained in this way are typically about 2 mm thick. In the more recent versions of the instrument, a fan ratherthan a beam of X-rays scans the object, and an array of multiple detectors isused to record the signal. Data acquisition is speeded up in this way yieldingan image in a few seconds.
Chapter 16
Atomic Physics
16.7
Lasers
Atoms in an excited level can return to the lower state by emitting a photon atthe corresponding resonance frequency (see Eq. 16.1). This type of emissionis called spontaneous emission. However, atoms in an excited state can emitphotons also in another way.
In 1916, Albert Einstein analyzed the interaction of electromagnetic radi ation with matter using quantum mechanics and equilibrium considerations.
His results showed that while light interacting with atoms in a lower energystate is absorbed, there is a parallel interaction of light with atoms in theexcited energy state. The light at the resonance frequency interacts with theexcited atoms by stimulating them to make a transition back into the lowerenergy state. In the process, each stimulated atom emits a photon at the resonance frequency and in phase with the stimulating light. This type of lightemission is called stimulated emission.
In a collection of atoms or molecules under equilibrium conditions, more atoms are in a lower energy state than in a higher one. When a beam of lightat resonance frequency passes through a collection of atoms in equilibrium,more photons are taken out of the beam by absorption than are added to itby stimulated emission and the light beam is attenuated. However, through avariety of techniques it is possible to reverse the normal situation and causemore atoms to occupy a higher than a lower energy state. A collection ofatoms, with more atoms occupying the higher state, is said to have an distribution. When light at resonance frequency passes throughatoms with inverted population distribution, more photons are added to thebeam by stimulated emission than are taken out of the beam by absorption.
As a result the intensity of the light beam increases. In other words, the lightis amplified. A medium with an inverted population can be made into a specialtype of light source called a laser (light amplification by stimulated emissionof radiation) (see Exercises 16-3 and 16-4).
Light emitted by a laser has some unique properties. It can be formed into a highly parallel beam that can be subsequently focused into a very small area,typically on the order of the wavelength of light. In this way a large amountof energy can be delivered into a small region with high degree of positionalprecision. Further, the light emitted by a laser is monochromatic (single color)with the wavelength determined by the amplifying medium.
The first laser was built in 1960. Since then many different types of laser have been developed, operating over a wide range of energies and wavelengths covering the full spectrum from infrared to ultraviolet. Some lasers

