Chapter 15

Chapter 15

• We look at the ways in which we view others and their behavior, as well as the ways in which we view the individual as part of a social group.

• Social psychology is in action.
• It applies what you already know about real-life behaviors in social settings.

• Social psychology is just as old as scientific psychology.
• The science of psychology was founded by Wundt.

• As you read this chapter, keep in mind that the human interactions we discuss do not occur in isolation; they occur in a specific cultural context.
• It is not surprising that the results of a research project in one culture may not be the same in another.

• Consider individualism and collectivism.

• You have to learn to be a good psychological detective.
• You need to ask about the conditions under which the research was conducted and the nature of the research participants.
• College students are often used as participants by psy chologists because they are convenient to draw from.
• These questions are difficult to answer.
• If we are truly committed to developing a general body of knowledge, they must be addressed.

• Roberto blended into the background, but you didn't know he was there.

• We live in a social environment where we constantly evaluate and make amazing plays when playing with others and ourselves.
• Similar plays can influence our behavior.

• An actor and a perceiver are needed for impression formation.
• You form an impression about the actor as the perceiver.
• The impressions that are formed are influenced by the views and thoughts of the perceiver and the actor.
• Let's take a closer look at each of the dimensions.

• We don't enter into relationships with a blank mind; we bring preconceived ideas to every situation.
• Stereotypes can be either positive or negative.

• Positive in-group stereotypes are the ones we have about people who are in the same group.

• The same logic applies to the process of assigning.
• You can think about a small number of categories rather than a large number of individuals if you put people into categories.
• The categories are stereotypes.

• A lot of information about an individual is lost when he or she is viewed as part of a group.
• The "beautiful is good" stereotype is an example.

• People in a given category do not necessarily share the same personality trait.
• Before reading further, write down at least one reason.

• There are two reasons for the persistence of stereo types.
• If we see a group of people as good, certain characteristics, we may note behaviors that are consistent with the "beautiful is good" stereotype.

• The effects of our own reactions and behaviors on individuals in question is the second reason why stereotypes are durable.
• You might treat individuals in ways that elicit behaviors that are in line with your stereotype.
• Our different instructor reactions result in different behaviors on the part of the students, expectations elicit behaviors even if the students are not different in any meaningful way.

• The perceiver plays an active role in the process of impression formation.
• The actor's characteristics play a role in this process.

• The actor's features have been shown to affect impression formation.
• The features include physical appearance, style and content of speech, mannerisms and communication, and the per ceiver's prior information about the actor.

• The "beautiful is good" stereotype assumes that attractive people have good qualities.

• It is expected that attractive people will make better impressions.
• Research shows that our first impressions of attractive people are more favorable than those of less attractive people.
• Research participants rate the average face created by a computer as more than the individual faces that contributed to it.
• Our legal system is influenced by the "beautiful is good" stereotype.
• More attractive defendants are often sentenced to less time in prison than unattractive defendants.

• An actor's style of speech is important.
• Chapter fifteen is influential because of speed, volume and inflections.
• A native of Atlanta may not like a fast, clipped speech from a New Yorker.
• When we meet someone with a foreign accent, we tend to talk slowly and loudly.

• The content of speech is important.
• Too much self- disclosure early in a relationship can create a negative impression.
• Self-disclosure is not as valued in Asian cultures like Japan as it is in the United States.

• Favorable impressions are created by people who have just said something to them.
• You just told a new person what your major is.
• If the response to this self-disclosure was silence or a comment on us a lot, how would you react?

• The most important part of the course is the first class.

• The instructor's decision to share communication plays an important role in determining the initial impression.

• When others are present, some people tend to be more aware of the types of signals they give.
• The Self-Monitoring Scale was developed by Mark and his colleagues to measure the degree to which individuals manipulate the signals they send to others in social situations and how well they are able to adjust their behaviors.
• You can see how you score on the Self-Monitoring Scale in the "Hands On" feature.

• No two statements are exactly the same.
• T is your answer if a statement is true or mostly true.

• F is your answer if a statement is false or not true.
• There are scoring instructions and interpretive comments at the end of the chapter.

• I don't think it's possible to imitate the behavior of other people.

• My true inner feelings, attitudes, and beliefs are what my behavior is usually an expression of.

• I don't try to say things that other people will like at parties and social gatherings.

• I can only argue for what I think is right.

• I can make impromptu speeches even if I don't have any information.

• I put on a show to impress people.

• I look to the behavior of others for clues when I am unsure of how to act in a social situation.

• I would be a good actor.

• I don't need the advice of my friends to choose movies, books, or music.

• I sometimes appear to others to be more emotional than I am.

• When I watch a comedy with others, I laugh more.

• I am not the center of attention in a group of people.

• I act like different people in different situations.

• I don't make other people like me.

• I pretend to be having a good time even if I am not enjoying myself.

• I'm not always who I seem to be.

• I wouldn't change my opinions in order to please someone else or to win someone's favor.

• I have thought about being an entertainer.

• I tend to be what people expect me to be in order to get along and be liked.

• I have never been good at acting in games.

• I can't change my behavior to fit different people and situations.

• At a party, I let others joke around with me.

• I don't show up well in company and feel a bit awkward.

• I can tell a lie if I have a straight face.

• When I really dislike people, I may be deceptive.

• Before you meet someone, you can get information about them.
• If a label is applied to an individual, it may stick.
• This point is illustrated by a classic study.
• The students in the class were told about the visit.
• The students who read the warm description had a better impression of the speaker than the students who read the cold description.

• The context you find yourself in can make you stereotypes.

• We try to discern the causes of their behavior.
• Attribution is the process by which we decide why certain events occurred or why a particular person acted in a certain manner.
• Our attributions are influenced by several fac tors.
• Our role as actor or perceiver in the situation is one of them.

• A person is experiencing stressors.
• Attributions are not always trivial because the factors that lead to social events and behaviors are not clear.

• Your best friend did well on her exam.

• A car was stolen from a restaurant parking lot.

• A large donation was made to the hospital.

• Before reading further, write a likely explanation for each event.

• Your best friend received an excellent grade on her exam.

• A car was stolen from a restaurant parking lot.

• A large donation was made to the hospital.

• It is important to decide if the cause of an event is internal or external.
• If we decide that the behavior has an external cause, we attribute it to the individual in question, and if we decide that the behavior has an internal cause, we attribute it to the environment.

• In a collectivist society such as India, internal attribu tions increase only slightly, whereas in an individualism society such as the United States, internal attribu tions increase dramatically.
• The converse pattern is true when it comes to external attributions.

• Attributions about the causes of behaviors, events, and situations are not as objective as we might think.
• There are various biases that can affect our attributions.
• The following pages describe some of the biases.

• The belief that individuals can control chance is one of the most prominent myths in our society.
• Throwing the dice in a certain way results in a high number, while throwing the dice in a different way results in a low number, according to dice players.
• In one study, college students believed that once a particular number had been rolled with the dice, the person who rolled could roll that number again (Fleming & Darley, 1990).
• Picking lottery numbers and flipping a coin are examples of how this feeling of control can be used.
• Despite the widespread belief that one can beat the odds, such behavior is only an illusion of control.
• An unbiased coin always averages half heads and half tails.

• The lottery numbers that are used to illustrate the actor are not related to those actually selected.
• Why do you think this is bias?
• Every once in a while a person is reinforced with an appropriate number pair and should develop two scenarios on a roll of the dice, a lottery ticket pays off, or a coin toss ends as predicted.

• In Chapter 6, partial reinforcement can cause at the top of this page as a guide.

• We can attribute the behav student arriving at an interpretation to either an internal or external cause, but we tend to be more appropriate for the actor and the other student.
• People tend to pay more attention to the behavior and the perceiver than to the situation in which the behavior occurs.

• There is a feature on the top of this page.

• It becomes more pronounced when the actor's behavior is unclear.

• You have volunteered to participate in a psychology experiment.
• The testing room is decorated to look like a television studio.
• As you enter the room, you are either a contestant or a quizmas ter.
• Several general questions are prepared by the quizmasters and the contestants try to answer them.
• The contestants are unable to answer the questions without fail.

• The intelligence of the quizmasters and contestants is rated after the quiz is over.

• Quizmasters are rated smarter than contestants.

• Before reading further, Jot down some possibilities.

• The participants were assigned to either the quizmaster or the contestant at the beginning of the experiment.
• The two groups should have been the same.
• The questions were created by the quizmasters.
• The contestants may have been helped by this arrangement.
• The quizmasters did it.
• The contestants were forced to answer questions from the quizmasters.
• The areas of greatest knowledge of the con testants were different.

• The contestants and the quizmasters overlooked this aspect of the situation.
• The quizmasters stumped the contestants so they were seen as more intelligent.
• A clear example of the fundamental attribution error can be found in the experiment by Ross, Amabile, and Steinmetz.

• The person who performed the behavior and the person who witnessed it can both be credited with the behavior.

• A person falls down the stairs.

• A man is stopped for speeding.

• If you adopt the role of the perceiver and then the actor in each situation, you should notice a difference in your attributions.
• The driver was stopped for speeding because he did not believe traffic laws applied to him, and the person stumbled because they were clumsy.

• In the role of the actor, you are more likely to make an external attribute like "I fell down the stairs because the heel of my shoe came off" or "I was speeding because my speedom eter is not accurate."
• The fundamental attribution error may be committed by perceivers more often than actors.

• The prediction that perceivers make more internal attributions than actors is due to the Attributional differences between actors and perceivers.
• The actors may be influenced by another bias.
• Success and failure have not had an impact on a person's attributions.

• The psychology exam was returned with a D.

• Before reading further, you should write down the reasons you would give for each situation.

• We are quick to accept credit for our successes and equally quick people, and thoughts that include to blame our failures on factors beyond our control.
• When our behaviors are successful and fail, we tend to make internal affective, knowledge, and behavioral attributions.

• In the United States, self-serving bias occurs more often than in Japan, but less often in col lectivist societies.

• We see ourselves as decent and capable, according to this view.
• Bad things happen to bad people because we are good people.
• Bad people are the victims because of their misfortunes.
• There is a tendency to blame rape victims.
• It is easy to forget about contextual and cultural factors when looking at the process of attribution.
• Researchers have shown that specific internal or external factors can influence the attribution process as much as they can.
• The degree to which individuals identify themselves with a particular culture is related to the attribution process.
• In the more collectivist culture of India, the operation of the fundamental at tribution error has not been shown.

• The judgement of an actor's character is involved in impression formation.

• We form attitudes about things.
• What are your failures on factors other than our attitude about AIDS, religion, soccer, abortion, politicians and crossword puzzles?

• These examples show that attitudes can be positive, negative, or neutral.
• Some people feel strongly about abortion while others don't.
• Some people like soccer and others don't.
• Many of your thoughts, behaviors, and interac tions are influenced by your attitudes.
• Political attitudes affect our thoughts about society, our behavior toward others with different views, and the people we call our friends.

• Let's say you love rollerblading.
• The thought of your "blades" being strapped on makes you smile.
• Rollerblading is a great way to stay in shape.
• You have a positive attitude.

• The three components of an attitude are affect, cognitive and behavior.
• You enjoy the activity and it's fun.
• You know that making up activity can bring health benefits.

• Our attitudes make us do or say something.
• You strap on the "blades" and go outside to rollerblade.

• We don't want you to think that these three compo nents work together perfectly.
• Let's say that you love pizza, but you know that it may be bad for your health because of your high cholesterol.

• The answer depends on which component is stronger.
• If you are walking past a pizza place at lunchtime, your feelings will be stronger than your knowledge that pizza may not be the best food for your health.
• You have pizza for lunch.
• If you are at home trying to decide where to go for dinner, the knowledge component may be stronger, and you decide to go where you can eat a healthier meal.

• It is hard to understand why we have attitudes and what their purpose is.
• ego defense, adjustment, and knowledge are some of the functions of attitudes.

• The self or ego are protected by attitudes.
• We don't have to confront the possibility that the statements are accurate if we attribute threatening statements to the type of individual making them.

• It is possible to maximize reinforcements and minimize punishments from the environment.
• People and behaviors that yield reinforcement are viewed negatively.
• An indi vidual who is being reinforced at a new job is likely to say, "I am very impressed with the supervisors at my new job."

• It is possible to bring order and meaning to one's world.
• A person who is trying to understand an apparently unjust situation may benefit from the following attitudes.

• Asking individuals to tell you their attitudes should be easy.
• Self-reports are often used to measure attitudes, but they are not easy to use.
• The responses can be influenced by the types of questions asked and the way they are asked.
• Some people may try to hide their feelings about sensitive topics such as AIDS, abortion, or the death penalty.
• Several other measurement techniques have been developed by psychologists.
• Likert scales and behavioral measures are included.

• The advantage of Likert scales is that they are easy to measure and can be used to compare different groups of individuals.
• Several items can be combined to form an attitude scale.

• The economic downturn was reduced by the congress's package.

• Raising the debt ceiling was the right thing to do.

• Cutting corporate taxes will create more jobs.

• Scales can be developed to measure attitudes.

• "Actions speak louder than words" is a saying that we place a lot of value on.
• If we tell others that energy saving is a good cause, we are expected to invest time and effort in activities such as planting trees or stuffing envelopes to raise money for the cause.

• The attitudes we express to others may not match our actual behavior.
• Stephen Davis and his colleagues found that most college students felt that cheating is wrong.
• Between 40% and 60% of the same participants cheated on at least one exam.
• These participants' attitudes did not match their behavior.
• It is important to observe the behavior of participants in addition to obtaining self-reports of their attitudes because expressed attitudes do not always coincide with behaviors.

• The process of attitude formation has fascinated social psychologists for a long time.
• We could apply this process in many real-life situations if we understood it.

• Favorable attitudes about politicians, tooth pastes, and automobiles could be created.
• Those attitudes could lead to behaviors that are financially rewarding to us.
• People would be buying toothpaste and automobiles because of the attitudes we had created.

• Classical conditioning can be used to acquire attitudes, in which a conditioned stimuli comes to elicit a conditioned response.
• When classical conditioning takes place, we either like it or dislike it.
• Imagine that the sight of food has been accompanied by a mild electric shock.
• The procedure is used in cases of extreme weight gain.

• Operant conditioning can be used to establish attitudes.

• The state in which thoughts and behaviors are compatible.
• A person who was concerned about cholesterol and high-fat foods but loved to eat pizza is an example.
• There are dissonant thoughts and behaviors here.
• There are reasons to distrust the medical advice about choles terol and there are new reasons to avoid eating pizza.
• In either case, the individual would strengthen his or her attitude towards the object or event.
• New attitudes are involved in the reduction of cognitive dissonance.

• This topic is considered in the next section.

• Attribution involves determining why certain group goals are most important and why certain people behaved in certain ways.

• When behaviors are thought to influence our social behaviors, researchers are interested in how our cogni is more confident.
• They are consistent and have been seen by others.

• Perceivers may be biased toward internal attributions, views of the perceiver, as well as the appearance and behaviors, whereas actors may be biased toward external attributions.

• They reduce the amount of thinking, and behavior is one of the components of an attitude.

• Our treatment of other people is an evaluation of observed behaviors.

• When she can't solve a problem, she calls her best friend, kathleen.

• People form many kinds of relationships during their lives.
• Some in dividuals become close friends while others remain casual acquaintances.
• A successful adjustment to society involves the establishment of good relationships.
• The factors that cause us to be attracted to others are examined in this section.

• It encourages interaction and repeated exposure if you are close to it.

• People who live with each other will survive face-to-face meetings.

• "If you laugh, the world will laugh with you," wrote the poet.

• A person's affect or emotional source can influence attraction.
• We are attracted to lawton.

• Even if they don't know why they are laughing, most people join in.
• The effect of sad moods can be seen in the con verse.

• The nature of our social interaction is an impor tant ingredient in creating affect.
• An attraction can be determined by the type of opening line used to speak to a stranger.
• You are sitting next to a stranger in a laundromat waiting for your clothes to dry.
• Direct opening lines are more likable than cute opening lines.

• The principle of reinforce ment gives us a clue.

• Let's say you're having a conversation with someone new.
• You are more likely to be attracted to that person if they pay you a lot of positive reinforcement.
• We like people who reward us and dislike people who don't.

• We like to make friends with people who are similar to us.
• In addition to observable characteristics, similarity of attitudes, beliefs, and values is very important in the development of attraction.
• In a classic study Theodore Newcomb found that attitude similarity played a major role in the development of friendship among transfer students living in a boardinghouse at the University of Michigan.
• It has been shown that similarity may not be as important in determining attraction in all cultures.
• The Japanese culture values status more highly than the American culture and they are more attracted to superior status.

• Feelings toward another person can affect our perception of similarity.
• The more we like an individual, the more we see them as similar to us.
• Men think that they are similar to a woman in whom they have a romantic interest.

• There are positive benefits to being similar in a relationship.
• The more simi form of attraction a husband and wife have, the less likely they are to divorce.

• Being attracted to someone can lead to friendship.

• When in each other's company, try to make a friend happy.

• Don't tell a friend.

• There are things that happen that do not simply happen.
• The development of a friendship is dependent on certain factors.
• In addition to the factors such as proximity, cooperation, affect and emotions, reinforcement, similarity, and even flattery that are important in establishing the attraction that underlies a friendship, self disclosure is an important factor.

• The process of impression formation and friendship formation are influenced by self-disclosure.
• People who are willing to reveal information about themselves are more likely to form friendship with us.
• As a friend ship develops, our level of self-disclosure changes.
• In the initial stage, we don't give much information.
• Subsequent disclosures will be more personal if these self-disclosures are reciprocated.

• The friendship becomes stronger as the self-disclosures become more personal.
• The friendship is stagnant if the level of self-disclosure does not become more intimate.
• Our level of self disclosure with these individuals probably will not increase because we tend to have a group of casual friends who are in the category of "speaking acquaintances".

• Most of us agree that there is a difference between friendship and love.
• There are several types of love proposed by theorists.
• There is a distinction between passionate and companionate love.

• Researchers have found cultural differences in passionate love.
• German and American students place a higher value on romantic love than Japa nese students do.
• There is a form of love that involves women in Japan that is not as positive as in other countries.
• Chinese couples value companionate love more than American couples do, but both places a higher value on passionate love desires and fantasies.

• Companionate love must develop if the relationship is to survive.

• The passionate-companionate distinction isn't the only psychological model of love.

• There are a number of factors that influence love relationships.

• The behavior of boys and girls is shown in Chapter 10.
• As adults, these childhood sex roles influence their behavior.
• Sex roles of men and women reflect stereotypes of maleness and femaleness before they were raised in the culture in which they were raised.
• Some men perceive the dating behaviors of women more sexually than women perceive the dating behaviors of men; friend lines on a woman's part is seen as reflecting a desire for sex.
• Men made sexual advances and women resisted.
• Sex role stereotypes are still prevalent, but other research shows that they are changing.
• Men who have accepted the changing roles of women in our society don't misunderstand the dating behaviors of women.

• A longitudinal view of the love relationship can be found through the study of marital satisfaction.
• During the early years of marriage, satisfaction is high and decreases in the middle years, and increases in the later years.
• The responsibilities of raising children can take a toll on a marriage, and the decrease in satisfaction during the middle years of marriage is associated with having and raising children.
• The fact that the children have grown up and left home allows the partners to rediscover that which brought them together initially.

• Some marriages go beyond just being unhappy.
• Nearly 15% of marriages in the United States are characterized by persistent, severe physical violence.

• Glenda is a victim of domestic violence.
• She has been married for seven years.
• She goes to work with a lot of black-and-blue marks.
• It's difficult to cover the signs of abuse.
• Before you continue reading, you should commit to writing down some reasons.

• The costs and rewards of abusive relationships are explained by social psychologists.
• The general outcome is expected from the theory.
• When the outcomes are equal or above, you are satisfied with the relationship.
• When the outcomes fall below your CL, you become dissatisfied.
• The more the relationship outcomes fall below your CL, the more dissatisfied you become.

• We can't assume that everyone sees the world the same way we do.

• When the outcomes fall below our CL, we would leave a relation of reward ship.
• We continue to find ourselves in relationships that are not satisfying and this action rarely occurs.
• According to interdependence theory, we develop a CL for alternative relationships.
• We can say that we will leave a relationship when the outcomes for that relationship fall below our CL for relationships in general and alternative relationships.

• Glenda has no family, her self-esteem is low, and her educational training prepared her only for jobs that pay the minimum wage, so the alternatives are even worse.
• There may be cultural imperatives that place a premium on the intact family unit and view divorce as un acceptable.
• The current relationship does not fall below Glen da's CL for the alternative relationships she sees as available to her.

• Altruism, or helping behavior that is performed voluntarily for the benefit of another person, is one of the most widely studied forms of prosocial behavior.
• There are many examples of altruistic behaviors.
• Individuals have faced great danger to save others from situations such as being hurt in an auto mobile accident, burned in a fire, or injured in combat.

• Some theorists think that altruistic behavior always involves a reward.
• The reward can be money or praise.
• Cialdini and his colleagues question the existence of true altruism because it cannot be shown that intrinsic rewards are lacking.

• Proponents of altruism contend that it is a genuine phenomenon.
• The definition of altruism is an emotional reaction to the suffering of another person that produces the desire to help.
• True altruism is not being shown when these characteristics are not present.
• Soldiers who cover an exploding grenade with their own bodies to protect their colleagues are showing altruism, whereas a per son who donates blood wears a sticker announcing this fact, and gets the admiration of friends.

• The tendency for a group influence of empathy on prosocial behavior has been shown in research on children of bystanders and may even be related to parenting style.
• The positive an individual to provide assistance characteristics are also shown by individuals who have accepted the care of a spouse to a person in trouble who is suffering from a long-term chronic illness and by Japanese individuals who are asked to make a sacrifice for other persons.
• We are using cross-cultural research to reach a conclusion that prosocial people may be similar across cultures.

• When an opportunity presents itself, most of us don't demonstrate prosocial behavior.

• The so-called bystander effect is one of the factors influencing helping behavior.
• If we are in trouble, we hope someone will come to our aid.
• A young woman named Kitty Genovese was stabbed to death in 1964 in Queens, New York City.
• At least 38 people saw or heard the woman's screams as she was attacked three times in half an hour by the killer, an especially horrifying aspect of her murder.
• The killer was frightened off when people called from their windows or turned on their lights.
• He resumed his attack on both occasions.
• None of the people who witnessed the attack came to the victim's aid or called the police.

• Some of the answers were provided by two social psychologists.
• The studies show that people are more likely to give assistance when they are alone.

• The bystander effect is determined by factors such as degree of danger, embarrassment, and not knowing how to help.
• There was a potential for great danger in the Kitty Genovese situation; the involved risks prevented many of the bystanders from coming to her aid.
• It would be hard to know how to help.

• Aggressive behavior that we could do more harm than good is what most of us are not good at.
• Most people are not willing to perform specific intent assistance in a foreign country.
• They are afraid that they will do something wrong.
• We shouldn't stop us from calling for help if we hurt another person.

• The responsibility for acting is shared when other people are present.

• The responsibility of each member of the group is lower than it would be for aggression.
• The person in distress is less likely to be helped by each person in the process of achieving another goal.
• The Internet has a lot of responsibility and is pervasive.

• Aggressive behavior is related to prosocial behavior.

• Aggressive behavior is intentional if there is a deliberate intent to do harm.
• Aggressive behaviors include hitting someone and yelling at a driver.

• There are at least two major types of aggression.
• Murders tend to be impulsive and aggressive.
• Aggressive behavior is instrumental in achieving the intended goal if it is used to attack a victim in order to steal something.

• Territorial disputes among animals don't result in physical damage or death.
• Konrad Lorenz believed that ani mals wouldn't use their natural weapons to kill their opponents in aggressive conflicts.
• The conflict ends when the loser shows submissive behavior.
• Humans do not have the same instinct as the people who are killed in modern wars.

• ethologists and biological psy chologists argue that aggression is part of human nature, but other psychologists stress the importance of environmental factors in producing aggressive behavior.

• When frustrated, an individual is likely to act aggressively.

• Consider an example.
• It seemed like a great idea to take a summer job as a construction worker.
• The pay was decent and the physical labor kept you in shape.
• After two days on the job, you are wondering if a hot summer day can encourage your sanity.
• You feel as though you are in a war because of the heat and your body hurts.

• It's time for a break.
• A cool soft drink will do just as well.
• After three tries, the vending machine still returns your money.

• You are likely to direct some aggressive responses towards the machine.
• Some of the responses may be verbal, while others may be physical.
• Your anger has led to aggression.

• The frustration-aggression hypothesis has generated a lot of research.
• A lot of the research shows that aggression comes from a variety of frustrating conditions.

• You should put yourself in this situation.
• You are second in line after waiting in line for a long time to purchase concert tickets.
• Someone cuts in ahead of you.
• Before reading further, write down your answers to the questions.

• Mary Harris did an experiment in grocery store lines.
• She found that cutting in front of the 2nd person resulted in more aggression than cutting in front of the 12th person.
• The closer you are to your goal, the more frustrated you become.
• Harris found that aggressiveness is related to level of frustration.

• A third factor must be involved after decades of research on the frustration-aggression hypothesis.
• The answer seems to be anger.
• Aggressive behavior will be reduced if the frustrating event does not result in anger.

• In addition to frustration and anger, Leonard Berkowitz argues that aggressive responding must be present.
• When frustration has caused anger, those cues prompt an aggressive response.
• There are visual images that suggest aggression.
• Video game images are examples of these cues.

• They reported that playing violent video games was related to violence in children.

• The destruction of the World Trade Center in New York on September 11, 2001, brought a frightening aspect of contemporary society into bold relief.

• Terrorist activities are within the realm of aggression.
• According to John Davis, who studies international psychology, the fact that terrorism is on the rise globally and is an increasing threat to all civilized countries means that now is the time for psychologists to pay more attention to it and to improve public understanding of the problem and its possible solutions.
• According to Moghaddam's view, terrorism is politically motivated violence, perpetrated by individuals, groups or state-sponsored agents, intended to instill feel ings of terror and helplessness in a population in order to influence decision making.

• In order to combat terrorism, we need to know who the terrorists are and why they became terrorists.
• The typical al Qaeda-type terrorist is in his late 20s, of upper-middle-class status, married, and educated.

• The staircase model was adopted by Moghaddam in his answer.
• The model says that the staircase is wide on the ground floor, but narrows as a person climbs to the five higher floors.
• The ground floor is occupied by the majority of the population.
• People look at their perception of fairness and feelings of relative deprivation at this level.
• International mass media have spread images of affluence and democratic lifestyles around the world.
• Many people in Africa, Asia, and Eastern Europe have had their expectations raised because of the images of Western countries.
• Many people who occupy the ground floor are frustrated and angry because they are not able to attain such levels of affluence and democratic lifestyles.
• Some frustrated and angry people will eventually climb the staircase to the first floor, according to Moghaddam.
• The problems of terrorism are likely to end at this point if the frustrated individuals who have climbed to the first floor participate in the decision-making processes.
• Moghaddam believes that these individuals have no chance for personal expression.

• They are exposed to the idea of moving their aggression up the staircase to the second floor.
• Out-groups begin to take a more clear shape at this level.
• The staircase to the third floor can be climbed by individuals who are ready to change their behavior.
• The person climbing the staircase believes that the use of any means possible is justified to achieve the ideal society in a parallel world of terrorism and morality.
• It is on the third floor that recruits are persuaded to become committed to the morality of the terrorist organization through a number of tactics, the most important of which are isolation, affiliation, secrecy, and fear.
• The recruits are trained to keep their parallel lives a secret from their wives, parents, and closest friends.

• Once recruits have accepted and adopted the shadow life and morality of terror ism, they have ascended the staircase to the fourth floor.
• There is little chance that they will leave the parallel life they have chosen.
• A recruit becomes a member of a terrorist cell.
• The cells are usually composed of four or five people.
• The original members of a cell are responsible for recruiting people who will carry out terrorist attacks.
• Friends coercing and encouraging their friends to join a group The new recruits are quickly convinced of the legitimacy of the parallel morality of terrorism and the "us versus them" view of the world once in the group.
• New recruits are socialized into their new in-group.

• At some point, these new recruits will ascend the staircase to the terrorist act.

• Policies for ending terrorism have tended to be short-term driven by political demands rather than by scientific understanding.

• Prevention needs to come first.
• The conditions that result in the perception of unfairness and unjustness on the ground floor are eliminated.

• Potential terrorists won't be able to climb up the staircase if these perceptions are removed.

• Support the growth of democracies.
• Efforts must be made to establish democracies that involve everyone.

• If the millions of people on the ground floor don't learn to see the world in a different way, it will be hard for terrorists to climb the staircase.

• "Greater international dialogue and improved intercultural understanding must come about as part of a long-term solution", says Moghaddam.

• International psychology, the social psychology of international relations, could play a role in counteracting terrorism.

• Train more psychologists.
• There is an information gap when dealing with people from different cultures.
• There needs to be more international psychologists to close the gap.

• Information sharing and psychological research should be increased.
• English is the language used by the major ity of psychologists worldwide.
• This situation needs to be fixed.

• Use the international organizations of psychology.
• The International Union of Psychological Science can help by providing translation services and promoting cross-cultural understanding.

• The public needs to be educated.
• The support of the average citizens of many nations is the key to making any other measures work.
• It is mandatory to educate the public about terrorism.

• There is still a lot of work to be done on the topic of terrorism.

• Hopefully, psychological science will be a part of the efforts to fight this plague of the 21st century.

• Because of the high amount of violence in the workplace, psychologists have given careful attention to this topic.

• The extreme to which workplace aggression can go is indicated by the description of Michael McDermott, who shot dead seven of his coworkers and five of his victims worked in the accounting department.
• The accounting department was preparing to take a portion of his wages at the request of the IRS.

• The vast majority of workplace aggression is committed by members of the public or by organizational outsiders, according to LeBlanc and Barling.

• The relationship between the attacker and the victim is a key factor in workplace aggression.

• The perpetrator has no relationship with the organization.

• To commit a criminal act is the primary purpose.

• Perpetrator has a relationship with the organization and commits an act while being served by the organization.
• Most of the assaults are not fatal.

• A perpetrator is a current or former employee who targets a coworker or supervisor for perceived wrongdoing.

• An employee of the organization has an ongoing relationship with perpetrator.

• Many marriages are characterized by abuse and aggression towards women.
• The dramatic increase in the incidence of rape shows that aggression and abuse are not seen in marriages.
• The extent of the problem is staggering.
• The Bureau of Justice Statistics reported 125,910 instances of rape/sexual assault in 2009.
• Rape or sexual assault can happen in 4 minutes.
• Many other cases of rape go unreported.

• Sexual aggression has been investigated by psychologists.
• Some of the factors that are thought to contribute to rape include cultural values, miscommunication, masculinity norms, men's attitudes toward rape, social disorganization, sex and power motives, and characteristics of the situation and victim.

• The category of date or acquaintance rape includes many unreported rapes.
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• The scenarios were the same, except for the party who asked for the date and the party who paid for it.

• When the woman asked for the date and paid the bill, she was seen as having a greater desire for sex than when the man asked and paid the bill.
• When the man had paid all of the date's expenses, he was justified in his sexual aggression.
• Some women may be trapped in the dating relationship because they are assumed to desire sex if the man pays for the date.

• There are other factors that contribute to date rape.
• The longer a dating relationship is, the more accepted date rape is perceived to be.
• Heavy alcohol consumption can lead to date rape on college campuses.
• This joint occurrence of alcohol consumption and date rape suggests that men often misinterpret the sexual desires of women and that men frequently use the supposed liberating effects of alcohol as a justification for sexual behavior.

• Some authorities have advocated courses in defense training to help college women deal with the threat of rape.
• The effectiveness of a date or acquaintance rape educa tion program has been explored by other authorities.
• The program was effective in raising women's sensitivity to potentially dangerous situations, but it had no effect on the men's attitudes.
• There are more effective solutions for this problem.

• We looked at the effects of social influences on our behavior.
• In the next section, we will find out what makes a good salesperson.

• Several tration, or being blocked from attaining a goal, results in other types of love.
• Sex roles can affect a person's behavior.

• Many nations have been affected by terrorism in recent times.

• A staircase model has been proposed for the development of terrorists.

• There is a bystander effect at sexual relations.

• Several shoppers look at a person.

• People are trying to influence us.

• The use of social influence to cause examine three types of social influences: those designed to persuade us to change our people to change attitudes or behaviors, to produce obedience, and to induce conformity.

• We are bombarded with hundreds of persuasive messages every day: Buy this car, join that group, support our cause, vote for this political candidate, give to that charitable organization.
• Some persuasive messages are effective while others are not.
• The four main factors that influence persuasion are source, message, channel, and audience.

• The source of a persuasive message can affect our attitudes and behaviors.
• Expertise, attractiveness, and trustworthiness have been found to increase the impact of persuasive messages.

• The following experiment has been done many times.
• Partici pants are randomly assigned to one of two groups, and an initial appraisal of their skills on a particular subject, such as dependability of American-made cars, is made.

• Both groups read a message.
• The participants' attitudes are measured again after the message has been read.
• The results show that the message from the authority has made more people change their minds.
• If the attitudes of the two groups were the same on the first measurement, then any differences that appear in the second must reflect the influence of the source.

• The more attractive the source, the more effective the message will be.
• Physical factors that influence impression formation also influence persuasion.
• The more likely you are to be persuaded, the bet ter your impression of the source.

• You might want to draw a diagram of your proposed study on a sheet of paper.
• Take all the possibilities into account.
• Continue reading if you are satisfied with your research design.

• We would start with two randomly formed groups of people and measure their attitudes.
• The same persuasive message would be given to both groups, but different people would deliver it.
• The degree of perceived expertise must be the same for both groups if we want to measure only attractiveness.

• The attractive expert would become less attractive with a change of clothes, shoes and hair.
• Table 15-2 shows the research strategy.

• Even if an attractive expert gives a persuasive message, it may not change attitudes.
• The source of the persuasive message must also be trustworthy, because it takes more than an attractive expert to convince us.
• Most people are aware of the prevalence and intent of per se communications and are skeptical of the vast array of claims they are exposed to.
• They need to trust the source of the message.

• The speaker's perceived gain from acceptance of the message is one of the main factors contributing to trustworthiness.
• When speak ers don't have anything to gain from presenting a particular message, they are more likely to be seen as trustworthy.
• A famous athlete in a series of TV commercials encourages you to buy a certain type of running shoe.
• The athlete will be hired to make commercials if the number of shoes sold increases.

• The Veg-O-Matic salesman was described at the beginning of the section.

• He was at tractive, that's a point in his favor.
• The salesman's level of expertise is questionable because world-class chefs don't usually demonstrate products in local discount stores.
• You immediately question his claims because he only wants to sell as many Veg-O-Matics as possible.
• His persuasiveness has been reduced by his lack of expertise and trustworthiness.

• Over time, an audience member may be able to get which person gives the message.

Would this salesperson be successful in convincing flawed decisions?

• The features of the message affect whether we are persuaded.
• The factors include attention, drawing conclusions, and message acceptance.

• You have to pay attention to the message.
• This simple fact has led to the development of numerous proce dures that are designed to attract attention, such as printing signs upside down or backwards, using vivid colors, and featuring sexually arousing stimuli.
• The story doesn't end here unless the sights and sounds are the message.
• The message that accompanies these attention-getters must be heard by the audience.

• Drawing conclusions.
• Messages cause us to reach a conclusion by changing our attitudes.
• A basic research question is who draws the conclusion, the person delivering the message or the individuals receiving it.
• The answer depends on the audience's involvement.
• If the audience simply receives the message without being involved in processing it, explicitly drawn conclusions are more effective.
• The majority of television commer cials are in this situation.

• Unusual scenes and shapes will not be persuasive if someone attends to a message.
• How many times have you heard a televised speech?

• The audience's attitudes should not be different for a message to be persuasive.
• Television commercials urging people to buy imported goods are less likely during a recession.
• The greatest amount of attitude change can be found in messages that do not differ from our beliefs.

• The acceptance of a message is manipulated through reactance.

• A proposal to raise taxes, regardless of the need for added revenue, is not likely to be welcomed by most people because the loss of income would limit their financial freedom.

• Consider the ads we see on television, in newspapers and magazines, online, and in stores.
• As you answer this question, try to think of as many examples as possible and write them down.

• These ads are designed to make us believe that our freedom to pay low prices is being restricted.

• The answer depends on when the audience is required to act.
• The first message is more effective if there is a delay between the presentation of the message and the required action.
• The last message has the advantage if action is required immediately after the message has been delivered.
• Suppose you are the campaign manager for a political candidate.
• The candidates are going to debate the issues.
• If the election is a few weeks away, your candidate should speak first.
• Your candidate should speak last if the election is tomorrow.

• Persuasive messages are presented in a variety of ways to make consumers believe in the channels.
• If you buy their products, you will use two or more channels at the same time.
• Television is popular with advertisers because it combines visual and auditory opportunities.

• It is possible to present messages to large audiences on some channels.

• Delivery of a message to a group of people at the same time can save a lot of time and effort.
• You were the recipient of a persuasive message.
• Before reading further, write down your answers to the questions.

• The person-to-person approach is more effective than appealing to a larger group.

• Both cases have the same message.
• Questions and answers can be given when we are in a one-on-one situation.
• The person presenting the mes sage can get a commitment from the receiver on the spot.
• We will talk about this phenomenon later in the chapter.

• The nature of the source, message, for the section on persuasion has been discussed so far.
• The nature of the audience can affect different colors for different factors.

• The knowledge and past experiences of the receiver of a persuasive message are organized.

• Children try to get their parents to buy them toys and food that they see advertised on TV.
• The attitudes of the audience are what the most persuasive messages differ from.

• Audiences can defend themselves against persuasion.
• The most frequently used procedure is giving people a mild case of a disease to inoculate them against it.
• The audience is exposed to a mild form of the persuasive message before the main or real message is presented.
• It has been shown that exposing teenagers to a mild form of peer pres sure to smoke, in anticipation of the pressure they will encounter later, reduces the likelihood that they will smoke.

• Inoculation effects work best when the audience is made aware of the message being presented.

• The central and peripheral routes are what we attend to.
• The answer to this question involves the nature of the message and the motivation to attend.
• You are more likely to attend if the message is relevant to you.

• In Chapter 1 we met Kara, who was learning about the famous experiments.

• The people of New Haven, Connecticut, were participants in the experiments.
• A scientist in a white lab coat and a middle-aged man who was actually a confederate of the experimenter greeted each participant at the laboratory.
• The scientist told the participant and the confederate that they would be taking part in a study of teaching and learning and that one of them would be the teacher.
• The real participant was the teacher, not the confederate.

• The teacher asked the learner to identify the second word from a list of four words after reading the first word of a pair.

• An electric shock was given to the teacher when the learner gave an incorrect answer.
• Each teacher experienced a mild shock before the session began to appreciate what the learner would feel.
• The questioning began.
• The experimenter demanded that the intensity of the shock be increased as the session progressed and the learner began to make mistakes.
• The learner indicated that he had a heart condition after the initial shocks were administered.
• The teachers became tense and faced a real conflict.
• ethical issues about the conduct of this behavior experiment were raised by the stress they faced.

• The teachers were unaware that no elec tric shocks were actually given to the learners in the experiment.
• The teachers obeyed the instructions of the experimenter until the shock level was reached.

• "Because they were told to" seems to be the best answer to this question.
• Before you say, "I wouldn't do that", bear in mind that the research involved more than 800 participants.
• Equal numbers of men and women continued to administer shocks.

• The same effect has been replicated with similar results recently showing that people are just as likely to obey authority as they were in the 1960s.

• Consider an even more frightening situation.
• In 1978, hundreds of people in Jonestown, Guyana, poisoned their own children and then killed themselves.
• Jim Jones, a charismatic leader, gave commands that were obeyed.
• The need to use social-psychological research findings wisely is underscored by tragic events like this one.

• A tragic example of disobedience occurred at a Mcdonald's.
• A store manager was called by an individual who said he was a police officer looking into a theft.
• The manager was told to question one of her female employees.
• After the employee was brought back to the manager's office, a person pretending to be a law enforcement officer told the manager to make the employee strip and put her clothes in a plastic bag.
• The teachers in the experiment thought they were giving electric shocks to the learners.

• The humiliation of the female employee was caused by both the manager and employee obeying perceived authority.

• The Jonestown tragedy and McDon ald's episode lead us to conclude that people can be too obedient.
• Several factors, including proximity to the victim, proximity to the authority figure, and assumption of responsibility, influence how obedient we are.
• The closer the victim is to the par Ticipant, the lower the percentage of participants who obey a command to harm the victim.
• When the learner was in the same room with the teacher, fewer shocks were administered.
• If the experimenter was in the same room as the teacher, they would be more obedient, but if the experimenter telephoned the commands from another room, they would be less obedient.

• The experimenter of the lines used in asch's assumes responsibility for any harm that befalls the victim.
• The likelihood of obeying drops dramatically when responsibility is shifted to the participant.
• If one of the experimenter's simple assistants defies the experimenter, the teachers' will be less obedient.

• Imagine being a part of an experiment.
• A group of people are sitting around a table.
• You have been told that the experiment is about seeing.

• You can see that you will be the last to answer.
• Something amazing happens.
• No one picks the line that matches the standard when the students give the wrong answer.
• It's your turn now.

• The authority behind pressures for conformity is not as obvious as it is in commands for obeying.
• Think about the study that was described.

• Many of us say that we would choose the correct line.
• Solomon Asch found that 30% of the time, participants chose the wrong line.
• The next-to-last person to answer in each group was the real paricipants.
• The other students in the group were not related to the experimenters.
• Asch found that as few as three people giving the wrong answer was enough to produce conformity.
• There was a decrease in the rate of conformity if one of the confederates gave the correct answer.
• The effects of group influence can be wiped out by only one other person.

• Asch's studies gave rise to other research on the effects of groups on judgement.
• James Stoner showed that the decisions made by a group may be riskier than the decisions made by individual members of the group.

• People make riskier decisions than groups.
• The general conclusion was questioned.

• Most people would advise you not to sell your life insurance policy to play the stock market.
• The group decision will be more against selling the life insurance policy than the individual opinions.

• Some researchers, such as Serge Moscovici and Marisa Zavalloni, proposed that a group's influence is strengthened or intenced in response to a request to change attitudes, not just to produce riskier decisions.
• If there is nothing to lose, the initial attitude is more likely to be favorable than if there is time and effort put into it.
• A group discussion would lead to greater risk-taking.

• Conformity on the part of an extremely large request, which its members, increases as a group's cohesiveness or shared values increase.
• As a result of this, if you are a member of a sorority, you are more likely to share and binge eat if you are close to each other.
• The presence of just one person who resists the pressure to conform can reduce conformity.
• When the confederate are more likely to accept jaywalking, the percentage of jaywalkers rose to 44%.

• The likelihood that a person will conform is influenced by culture.

• When Asch's line-judging experiment was replicated, similar rates were found in cul that involve doing something similar to what industrialized Europe does.

• The rate of conformity rose in cultures that valued it more highly.

• In the absence of direct requests to change behavior, we yield to group pressures.
• In order to change behavior, a request is made in the form of an order.
• Compliance may seem simple, but requests are made and behaviors result.
• Social psychologists have studied and salespeople have exploited to increase compliance.
• If a salesperson succeeds in getting a customer to comply with a small request, the chances of them complying with a larger request are greatly increased.
• If you can be talked into taking a test ride in a new car, the chances of you buying it increase.
• In securing compliance, the converse procedure is effective.
• Most people will want to slam their door when they see this request.
• The proposal of a smaller, more reasonable request, such as $10, that the person is more likely to agree to, can be made because of the refusal of the large request.

• Compliance may be influenced by what another person has done for you.

• Take a look at the following situation.
• A computer salesperson is going to come to your apartment to talk about a new computer system.
• She will give you details about sev eral systems based on your needs.

• The person seeking compliance does something to make you feel obligated when he or she makes a request.

• A person is giving out free samples of chips and cheese dip while you grocery shop.
• It is late in the afternoon and a bite to eat would taste good.
• The salesperson expects you to make a purchase if you accept the free samples.

• We have seen how social influences affect people.
• The effects of group membership are examined in the next section.

• Most people enjoy being with others and have a strong need for affiliation.
• People often join and interact in groups like the one described.

• Being a member of a social group means that there are membership criteria, responsi bilities, privileges, and statuses.
• You are aware of who is in and who is out of your group.

• Group influences on individual behavior are examined in this section.
• The effect of other people on the behavior of individuals is the first thing we look at.

• Robert Zajonc proposed that the presence of other people increases arousal.
• If you have performed a task many times in the past, the correct response is to perform even better when other people are present, because the increased arousal causes you to perform even better.

• The tendency to exert less effort the task has not been practiced or learned well and the correct response is not when working on a group task that dominates, the presence of others tends to reduce the level of performance.
• The effect does not involve evaluation and can be seen in the performance of children in a piano recital: Those who have practiced of individual participants carefully perform as if inspired, whereas those who have devoted as little time as possible to practicing are plagued by wrong notes and memory lapse.

• It depends on how good a pool player you are.
• When others are present, your performance should improve because you are an above-average player.
• When others are present, your performance should decline if you are a below average player.

• Social facilitation doesn't always happen.
• Professional athletes fail in front of their fans if the pressure is too great.
• Major league baseball players have lower batting averages in critical situations.

• The presence of others doesn't guarantee that performance will improve.
• Social facilitation can be predicted when individual efforts are evaluated.
• Social loafing occurs when a group works toward a common goal and individual efforts are not monitored or evaluated.

• When a group of men pull a rope, they exert less effort than when they pull alone.
• People clap and cheer louder when they think they are alone.
• In relay swimming performance, social loafing has been shown.

• Research shows that men are more likely to engage in social loafing than women, and that people in Western cultures are more likely to engage in social loafing than people in Asian cultures.

• Making the task more challenging, appealing, or competitive can help reduce social loafing.
• The coach of a good athletic team uses pep talks to counteract social loafing.
• Motivational speeches challenge team members to become more involved in the competition.
• Social loafing is less likely to occur in smaller and more cohesive groups and in individuals who are high in achievement motivation.

• We have seen that the presence of other people can cause an individual to perform better at a task.
• We need to clarify the other people who are present.
• We assumed that the others were an audience.
• The other people are doing the same thing.

• The feeling of being lost in a crowd is called deindividu ation.
• Students at large universities who are plain about being a number are experiencing a negative reaction.
• Uncontrollable behavior is often caused by deindividuation.
• The most frequent outcome of this behavior is destructive or unauthorized.
• The destructive behavior of crowds after a sports victory is an example of such behavior.
• Police and security guards must be hired.

• The sheets and masks of the Ku dren have a powerful influence on the behavior of both adults and children.
• The behavior of the Ku Klux Klan hide personal identities, military training, and wearing white sheets are some of the more extreme examples of deindividuation.

• An alternate interpretation of the effects of deindividuation has been proposed by Fathali Moghaddam.
• Moghaddam suggests that they have not abandoned all group norms and social controls, they simply have adopted new antisocial norms and values.

• Group members need to cooperate in many instances.
• Families couldn't function, juries couldn't reach verdicts, and teams couldn't win games.
• The presence of groups may result in riskier decisions.
• Several of the dynamics and processes of group interaction are explored in the rest of this section.

• Certain predictable behav iors occur when a group of unacquainted individuals are formed.
• If the group is to function effectively, it will need a leader.
• Two types of lead ers emerge in a group according to Robert F. Bales.
• The business of the group is of primary importance to the leader.
• A leader who is socially oriented is more likely to show concern for the feelings of group members.
• The indi viduals who become leaders sit at the head of the table.
• The importance of task and social leadership has been emphasized in studies of leadership in India, Iran, and Taiwan.

• There are eight characteristics of effective work ing groups.
• The more of these characteristics that a small and motivated group possesses, the more effective the group will be to meet the goals of the often result in better results and less group.

• The group's structure can help it meet its goal.

• Different structures might be used in the group.

• For groups to work well, a mix of talents and abilities must be created.

• All members of a group have the necessary skills to meet the goal of the group.

• Group unity is less effective when groups see themselves as a collection of individuals rather than a team.

• The standards should be easy to understand.
• The results that meet and exceed the standards should be awarded.

• This could include psychological or financial support.

• Leadership is the main driver of group effectiveness.

• When maintaining harmony among group members is more important than analyzing the problem at hand, the group's effectiveness decreases.
• Groupthink occurs in groups that are insulated from other opinions, feel vulnerable, and are placed under time constraints to make a decision about a threat to the group.
• Groups tend to make premature decisions in these circumstances.
• If there is little hope of finding a better solution, the leader's first suggestion is usu ally.
• The decision to cross the 38th parallel during the Korean War, to invade Cuba at the Bay of Pigs in 1961, and to escalate the Vietnam War in the mid-1960s were poor decisions that were prompted by groupthink.

• Groupthink is reflected in the activities of the Ku Klux Klan and lynch mobs.

• The intelligence failure about weapons of mass destruction may have been a result of groupthink, as it has been suggested that George W. Bush's invasion of Iraq and events lead up to this decision.

• Group members and leaders can take steps to avoid being caught in the groupthink trap.
• The leader should try to remain impartial.
• People outside the group should have opinions.
• The group should use secret ballots in order to ensure that they express their true feelings.

• Discrepant results have been produced by the topic of groupthink.
• There is a need for more research in this area.

• Membership in a political action committee is usually voluntary.
• Some forms of group identification are not within our control.
• Students, teachers, bricklayers, Italians, actors, rock musicians, alcoholics, Jews, or Catholics are some of the people who are members of this type.
• We are dealing with prejudice and discrimination when we are members of such groups.
• These are important aspects of relationships.

• Think about where you live.
• Think about other countries.
• When you thought about your own country, your feelings were more positive than when you thought about others.
• The ideal against which other groups are evaluated is the group we belong to.
• Other groups are short of ours.
• We are being ethnocentric when we compare our nation to others.
• Nocentrism is a form of prejudice.

• It has been assumed that the results of psychological research done in the United States are similar to those done in other cultures.

• These blinders are being removed by the results of cross-cultural studies.

• Our judgments of other people are usually based on one characteristic-- their social category or group membership.
• We don't need to know anything about the individual in question, just the category.
• Some examples of group memberships are young, old, rich, poor, and intellectual.

• Positive prejudice is an example of Ethnocentrism.
• Negative prejudice is reflected in our thoughts about other countries and cultures.

• The negative or positive evaluation that is at the center of preju dice is quite general.
• We all know that prejudice can be very specific.
• We can describe exactly why a person is desirable or undesirable.
• Write down your answer and reasons for selecting it before you read further.
• The answer involves a topic that was discussed earlier in the chapter.
• If you agree that these specifics are a set of beliefs about the members of a par ticular group, you already know that we are dealing with stereotypes.
• All actors are dumb, and all jocks are temperamental.
• The softball player in your history class is seen as a dumb jock by the instructor, while your friend is considered to be a troublemaker by the algebra instructor.

• A vicious cycle is created when behavior that adversely affects discrimination is acceptable.

• Discrimination can occur in many ways, including age, sex, religion, race, and political views.
• For all the faculty members at a certain college to be men, despite the fact that many qualified women had applied for faculty positions, would be an instance of sex discrimination.
• You should keep in mind that dis crimination can be active and passive.

• There are several functions and springs from a variety of sources.
• We look at both social and emotional sources of prejudice.

• Social standing is often justified by prejudice.
• Individuals can rationalize discrimination against members of certain groups by holding negative prejudice against them.
• Consider the treatment of slaves, women, racial minorities, and people of different religions.
• The members of the in-group share the same values, goals, and beliefs, while the members of the out-group are different.
• Your in-group may be our out-group, and vice versa, as the perception of in-group and out-group is relative.
• The size of the in-group affects the strength of members' feelings toward that group; smaller in-groups result in stronger favorable attitudes toward other members of the group.
• An example of the effect of in-group size is when a small group of fans travel to a neighboring school for an athletic contest.

• In the face of a large home crowd, each member's ties to the group seem stronger.

• We saw earlier in the chapter that frustra tion can lead to aggression.

• prejudice can satisfy our emotional need for status because it makes us feel superior.
• An increase in the feeling of insecurity can result in us judging others more harshly.
• Students who wrote a short essay about dying were more prejudiced against members of out-groups.
• It can have negative effects.

• Almost everyone has experienced prejudice or discrimination in one form or another.
• "Equal status contact between majority and minority groups in the pursuit of common goals" was a proposal made nearly five decades ago.
• When the city commissioned several ing because such contact shows that stereotypes are inaccurate, his hypothesis predicts that close and exten sive contact between group members will result in greater understand.
• Before this hypothesis, cooperation in this activity becomes workable, however, several additional qualifications are needed; otherwise, led to a decrease in prejudice and people may dismiss the inaccurate examples and actually strengthen their existing violence among the gangs.

• It is difficult to overcome prejudice when one group is seen as having lower social status than another.

• In the classic piece of research in this area, Muzafer Sherif and his colleagues demonstrated that competition between groups at a summer boys' camp resulted in prejudice and discrimination.
• The groups were forced to work together.

• Reducing prejudice and discrimination is a result of cooperation that is successful in achieving a goal.

• Research supports the effectiveness of intergroup contact as a way to reduce prejudice.
• Intergroup contact can be effective if the conditions are right.
• People who have had negative encounters with other people do not react well to intergroup contact.

• Someone feels obligated to do something in return.

• The presence of other people increases arousal.

• There are two types of leaders.
• The cognitive approach to persuasion seeks to determine what tasks are confronting the group and the other is thought processes that occur during persuasion.

• The process of making group decisions that promote group commands is high.

• Stereotypes are an important part of prejudice.
• The decisions of a group may be riskier than the decisions of other groups.

• Intermediate scores range from 9 to 14.
• There are scores of 0 to 8.
• T knows how to influence other people's emotions.

• The features and packaging used to sell Organizational psychology may have been influenced by additional research.

• I/O psychologists look at all aspects of workplace design.

• Industrial psychology was the first area to develop.
• Organizational psychology deals with topics such as personality, com munication, and organizational behavior.
• Most researchers don't see the two specialties as separate and distinct.
• We will look at them separately in order to understand their nature and charac teristics.

• One of the key steps in the development of I/O psychology is the scenario at the beginning of this section.
• As well as forensic psychology, Munsterberg's interest in applications of psychology extended to other areas.
• Until World War I, psychology was not used on a large scale.
• A committee headed by Walter Scott developed a rating scale for select officers.
• Scott took on the job of assigning the right man to the right job based on their success.
• The Committee on Classification of Per sonnel in the Army was headed by Robert M. Yerkes, who was assisted by two other psychologists.
• They were tasked with identifying and eliminating the mentally ill from service in the U.S. Army.

• After the war, psychologists began to develop other tests for the selection of civilian.

• The process of selecting employees begins with online job advertisements.

• Industrial psychologists are interested in determining the basic knowledge, skills, and other characteristics needed to perform a given job.

• Employment law affects their work in a variety of ways.
• Some of the most important laws are summarized in Table 16-1

• Affirmative action is a social policy that was developed to reduce the effects of decades of prior discrimination.
• Affirmative action is included in the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission's guidelines.

Affirmative action has four goals: 1) to correct present inequalities in job and educational opportunities, 2) to compensate for past inequalities, and 3) to provide role models by increasing the number of minority group

• One of the two basic types of job analysis is conducted by an industrial psychologist.
• The O*NET is an excellent source of information on job or work analyses.
• The knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to perform a wide variety of jobs are provided by this online source.
• A wealth of information is provided by this easy to use data source.
• You can use personal characteristics that are important to you to search for jobs on O*NET.

• The responsibilities of a job of the recognized procedures include interviews, work samples, applications, letters of recommendation, tests, and situational exercises.
• We talk about the interview that is needed to do that job.

• Issues of racial discrimination in the workplace can be seen as a form of slavery.

• New businesses have to be accessible to the disabled and existing businesses have to make improvements.

• Interviews have poor validity because they have little ability to predict which job candidates become good workers.
• Employers still use interviews to find workers.
• From a company's perspective, consider this question.
• Write down your reasons.

• There is a $10 million company.

• Signing a pay voucher.

• There is a storage system for company forms.

• A marketing plan is needed for a nationwide showing.

• A program to detect computer viruses.

• A Vcr is used to watch a tape.

• A clean, efficient power plant is being designed.

• There is a door lock.

• In terms of reliability, validity, fairness, applicability, time requirements, and cost, selection procedures vary.
• Good validity and reliability can be found in job application forms.
• Application forms are part of the job selection process.

• Most interviewers think they can "size people up" through an interview and determine whether they will be good employees.

• It is relatively cost- and time- efficient to interview.

• Selection interviews are well established and hard to abandon, yet they are often criticized for their limited reliability and validity.

• Research-based guidelines can be used to improve the reliability and validity of interviews.
• The job analysis is required by professional and legal guidelines.
• The approach should raise validity by increasing the job-relatedness of interview questions and decreasing the amount of irrelevant infor mation collected during the interview.
• In order to standardize the sample of behavior used to judge each interviewee, the same questions should be asked of each job candidate.
• Third, questions can be improved by using more hypothetical situations, questions about the candidate's background, and questions about the past.
• The same interviewers should interview each candidate.
• Random errors should be averaged out by the use of multiple interviewers.

• Employers who follow the guidelines would be in a better position to defend their selection procedures against accusations of discrimination in the hiring process.

• Table 16-3 contains descriptions of some commonly used tests.
• Successful tests must be reliable, valid, and standardized.
• There are requirements for personnel tests as well.
• The validity and reliability of the tests could be considered unfair.

• After falling out of favor, personality testing is back.
• Cognitive tests have been the most frequently used selection measure in the past.
• Employers have searched for alternative selection measures because cognitive tests inevitably result in adverse impact.
• The recent development of the five-factor model gave a useful way to organize personality traits and apply them to job performance.
• Extra version and conscientiousness are two of the five factors that can be used to predict job performance.
• The best predictions will be decided by an industrial psychol ogist.

• New employees need to be trained in company procedures, policies, and equipment.
• The job of federal flight deck officer is one of the newest employment areas in which psychologists are making major contributions.
• The job was created after the terrorist attacks.
• Federal flight deck officers act as a last line of defense against terrorism and only have jurisdiction on the airplane flight deck.
• The development of an effective screen ing program and the training of officers was done by psychologists.
• Training and selection go together.

• Continuous training is required in technical fields such as computer Sys because knowledge becomes obsolete in a short time.
• Training is more than just for new recruits; experienced personnel also benefit from new training programs and refresher courses.

• A printer uses two sizes of type to print an article of 48,000 words.

• Several steps are involved in a comprehensive training program.
• Who needs to be trained, what training program to use, and what is to be taught are all determined by the needs assessment.
• Only a small percentage of companies conduct a needs assessment to determine their training requirements.
• The training objectives are established once the needs assessment is complete.
• Trainers design the training program after selecting the training methods.

• Most training programs involve a mix of learning principles.
• The evaluation of the training program is the last step after the training program has been implemented.
• There are two ways to evaluate training.
• The evaluation of the objectives that the trainer developed before training is the most expensive and time consuming procedure.

• If training involved learning new computer skills, the evaluation would determine if they were learned.

• This procedure is quick and cheap, but it doesn't give much helpful information.

• If you've held a job, you've experienced a performance evaluation.

• The evaluation usually involves ratings across a number of performance dimensions.
• Performance appraisals can affect decisions about promotions, raises, and layoffs.

• Making the evaluations fair and systematic is one of the greatest challenges in appraisal.
• Supervisors may give ratings that are not in line with employees' actual performance.

• One way to increase agreement in performance appraisals is to provide explicit instructions and standards.

• There are two types of performance appraisal criteria.

• Different raters should arrive at the same rating because objective criteria are easy to observe.
• If two production managers watch a worker assemble radios, they should count the number of radios produced at the end of the day.
• Subjective criteria are not the same as objective criteria.
• The instrument used to record subjective ratings is highly variable and can be affected by a range of personal styles.

• In white-collar jobs, this approach is called mentoring.

• Military simulations are used to train soldiers for the battlefield.
• Video and arcade games are available to the public.

• The main methods for rating performance are comparative methods and individual methods.
• Try to assess more general attitudes or factors such as communications skills.
• Development of the instrument can take a lot of time, but it can prove useful in evaluating employees and providing feedback.

• Even though the employee is rated individually, comparisons are made with other employees.
• Quality of work, dependability, and ability to get along with coworkers are some of the important aspects of the job that can be rated on a number of scales.

• The scales evaluate 7 to 12 performance dimensions.
• The scales that define the performance dimensions and rating cat egories are the best.
• A written account of the worker's performance is involved in this technique.
• Specific examples in support of the rater's commentary are included in the better narratives.

• Performance appraisals should be made as soon as possible after the job is done.

• When the supervisor believes that personal effort is involved, these effects are found in performance appraisals.
• Superior performance will be rated more highly and inferior per for mance will be rated more harshly.
• It has been shown that employees attribute more weight to the situation than to the actions of the supervisor.

• Individual appraisals represent a typically Western view of evaluation.
• There are different ways of giving assessment feedback to employees.

• It can be difficult to detect unconscious biases on the part of the rater.