Chapter 8

The basic processes of cognitive psychology are found in lower ani Problem Solving mals, so we may wonder what separates humans from animals.

The human brain can solve problems and make decisions.

The development of complex Thinking and Language language sets us apart from other species.

One of the more controversial views of intelligence is the measurement of intelligence.

The history of intelligence testing shows how the study of a topic changes over time.

In some cases he made the determination quickly, while in others it took longer.

Mental processes are inferred from observable behaviors by cognitive psychologists.

The study of images is one way in which cognitive psychologists draw inferences about thinking.

According to the subfield of psychology, they visualize events and objects to answer questions.

The study of higher the experience of seeing even though the event or object is not actually viewed, can mental processes such as thinking, activation brain areas responsible for visual perception, such as the occipital lobes.

The geometric figures were different in orientation to each other.

Mental rotation is something to give on.

Write down your answer before you read further.

Participants took longer to decide whether the object was the same or different when it had been changed a lot.

The longer people take to return the configuration to its original orientation, the greater the degree of rotation.
It is not a legitimate part of science to inferences about unseen mental processes.
Physicists can't observe gravity directly, even though they study its effects, because they can't use the Earth's sediment layers to infer past events.

We can use visual images to store information in our memory and answer questions similar to the ones we asked before, as well as plan a course of action.

The following examples show how imagery can be used in sports.

We need to describe the size of the land.

There are different areas of the brain that are activated by sight, hearing, speaking, and thinking.

The occipital lobes are responsible for processing visual information.

Sport psychologists use visual imagery to improve attention and performance in a number of sports and juries.

The control and execution of movement can be improved by mental practice, as shown by measures of blood flow in the brain.

Images play a role in thinking, but not all thinking involves imagery.

The formation and use of concepts is a large part of it.
Concepts play a role in thinking.

It's easier to understand the size of an acre if you see a football field without the end zones.

Concepts reduce the load on memory and allow us to make predictions about our world.

Imagine driving a car for the first time.

Predicting how the car operates, knowing the type of fuel needed, understanding what happens when you put the key in the ignition, and locating several controls are all things you can do.

Rules that tell us what is and what is not an instance of the concept can be used to classify something as an example of a concept.

The rules work well for defining a square, a closed two-dimensional figure with four equal sides connected at 90-degree angles.

The rules we used need to be figured out by you.

The first and fourth examples show the concept; the second and third examples don't show it.
Write down the rules you think define the concept.

One way to learn a new concept is to use trial-and-error learning, where you suggest a preliminary idea and then test it on new examples.

This approach has been used in laboratory studies.
Were you able to identify the experiments?

You might have noticed that this laboratory-based example is not like the ones you see in everyday life because it is more complicated and not defined by neat sets of rules.

List the properties that could be used to classify an animal as a cat.

It is possible to see that listing a set of properties as the rules for defining a concept doesn't always work out.

Participants in laboratory research create a list of proper ties to form concepts.
We compare a new object to a prototype.

Think of a bird.

When people rate the degree to which various fruits represent the concept "fruit", they tend to rate orange and apple as the best exam ples; tomato and avocados were least likely to serve as the prototype of a fruit.
You probably didn't think of a chicken or penguin.

New objects are classified according to their similarity to our prototypes.

There are often degrees of similarity between prototypes and concepts in a concept category.
The concepts we encounter and use every day are not based on a specific set of properties.

Our concepts are organized into a hierarchy and do not exist independently.

"recliner," "rocking chair," "desk chair," and so forth are some of the levels below this heading.

Concepts reduce the load on our memory because we don't have to remember everything.

We use memory to solve problems that are related to problems we have seen before.
Some problem-solving methods that have stood the test of time can be used when a problem is not similar to past problems.

The act of determining and executing how to proceed from a given state to a desired goal state is called problem solving.

Sometimes major problems and occasionally minor problems are encountered on a daily basis.
You might find that the wheels of your car spin on the ice, that your luggage breaks as you board a flight, or that your computer crashes at the most inconvenient time.
Some problems are easy to solve, others require a lot of effort, and some may be unsolvable.

A clearly specified beginning state, a set of clearly specified tools or techniques for finding the solution, and a clearly specified solution state are some of the characteristics of well- defined problems.

There is a degree of uncertainty about the starting point, needed operations, and final product.

The criteria for judging the responses to such problems are not always simple and straight forward.

If you have faced a similar problem in the past, you can retrieve the solution from your memory and apply it to the current problem.

If the problem is new and there is no solution in long-term memory, you can use several strategies to attack it.
A model that can be used to understand human thinking has been provided by high-speed computers.
To use the computer as a model of human thought, researchers need to know what human beings do when they solve problems.
There are two general approaches to solving problems that can be programmed into a computer.

If a solution exists, you can use a strategy to solve the problem.

There is an opportunity for you to solve a problem that involves the use of arithm.

As you try to solve the problem, pay atten requires you to evaluate everything you do.

Finding a solution to our anagram problem is more difficult than using anagrams.

You should note that the material found in these five letters can be arranged in 120 different ways.
It's not preceding chapters.

It can be time consuming if we are told what to do to reach a solution.

If you spent 1 second on each letter, you could solve the anagram in 2 minutes.
Most people solve the anagram in less than 2 minutes, so they probably use a method other than an algorithm.

Procedures can't be set up in advance to guarantee a solution.

Some problems are so large that they are impractical.

It would take centuries to examine all possible arrangements of the chess pieces, so chess players don't rely on algorithms.

If you were trying to solve the anagram, you may have decided that the educated guesses should be separated.

It might be a good idea to separate the V and the S of thumb for solving problems because this combination of letters does not occur frequently in English words, and on the other that are not guaranteed to yield hand, SO is a common combination.
Heuristics do not guarantee solutions, but they make more efficient use of time.
It's possible to lead to quick solutions or to no solution at all.

ObstaCles anD aIDs tO prOblem sOlvIng.

Researchers compared the problem solving of experts and non experts and found that experts know more about the problem than non experts.
Experts know how to collect and organize information and are better at recognizing patterns in the information they gather.
Researchers can help us improve our problem-solving capabilities and avoid obstacles.

One way to study problem solving is to ask people to think.

A researcher can follow a person'slem-solving efforts.
Using this technique, psychologists have found that problem solvers can break problems down into sub goals, which they can attack and solve one at a time.
The chances of reaching a solution can be increased by these intermediate sub goals.

Nine adults and two children want to cross a river using a raft that will carry either one adult or two children.

The raft cannot be pulled across the river by a rope.
Before reading further, write down your answer.

This isn't an easy problem.

It is difficult to solve a large problem in a single swoop because effective problem solvers break it down into smaller sub goals.
You need to know how many crossing are required to get one adult across the river.
It takes four crossing to get one adult across the river and back to the dock.
One of the children can return the boat if they cross the river.
An adult can cross alone if the child returns the boat.
It will take 36 trips to move nine adults across the river if you repeat the sequence of four trips eight more times.

There are 37 trips needed to move the two children across.

To solve the problem, the first thing you need to do is identify the sequence that is needed to cross the river, and the second thing you need to do is determine if the sequence can be repeated.

You need to break the problem into manageable sub goals to find the solution.

One example of functional fixedness is Maier's Bias toward the use of a two-string problem.

There are two strings hanging from the ceiling.
A chair and a set of pliers are in the room.

The strings are too far apart to allow a person to grasp them and tie them together.

Most of the solutions tried by participants in the study were unsuccessful.
Think about it for a while.

The solution to this problem is to tie the pliers to the end of one string and then catch it with a pendulum and tie it to the other string.

The solu tion may seem obvious now, but only 39% of participants solved the problem in 10 minutes.
They didn't see that the pliers could be used in an unusual way.

Imagine that you are in a small room.

A box of wooden kitchen matches, a piece of string, a candle, and thumbtacks are on the floor.
There isn't an elec tricity in the room.
The candle should be mounted on the wall using the materials in the figure.
Before reading anything else, write down your solution to the problem.

The solution is presented at the end of the chapter.

Many people fail to solve this problem because of functional fixedness.
People trying to solve this problem often fail to see the box as a support for the candle because the matches are shown in the box.

Problem solvers can experience difficulty in representing a problem and may rely on common uses of objects.

It is possible to restrict ourselves to certain problem-solving approaches even if they are not the most effective.

In these problems, the goal is to get the specified amount of water by using a group of three jugs.

After the first warm-up problem, the solution is B minus the material describing problem A minus 2C: fill jug B, then pour enough water to fill jug A, and fill jug C twice.

A basic solution works for Problems 2 through 6.

There is an easier way to solve Problems 7 and 8.

One member of the group can be solved with less steps if they first fill Jug A and then fill Jug C. There are some possible solutions to your problem.

There are solutions to the problems we have described.

Our thinking in problem solving doesn't just involve solving problems.
Sometimes we are asked to consider the advantages and disadvantages of a course of action.

There is no problem to be solved here, but there is a decision to be made.

We make hundreds of decisions each day.

Some of the decisions are easy.

The brain is able to process a lot of information quickly.

Heuristics can lead to good decisions, but they can also lead to bad decisions.

Some of our mistakes are caused by the same principles that allow us to make easy judgements.
Imagine that you see a red car that was involved in an accident.
If you were asked to estimate the number of crimes in which people plead not guilty by reason of insanity, it is likely that you would overstate it.
We look at some of the most important heuristics in this section.

You have to suggest other sets of numbers that follow the rule.

The objects are pointing at the top of the page.

The arrangement should be moved to the bottom of the page.

Changing the arrangement so that no full glass is next to another full one and no empty glass is next to another empty one is possible by handling and moving only one glass.

To get the pattern at the right, move only two pennies in the left diagram.

When we try to solve problems, we face obstacles.

If you want to check the answers at the end of the chapter, try each one of the problems.

Both series follow the rule.

You would be wrong if you said that the rule requires that the numbers increase by 2.
A majority of participants in a study confidently stated an incorrect rule.

The correct rule is that the series must have three positive numbers.

Gambling bets can be influenced by hypotheses.

The tendency to seek instances that confirm our beliefs, solu numbers or colors is an important aspect of our problem-solving.
They try to avoid instances that disconfirm their hypotheses.

The confirmation bias is shown in the following story.

The goal of the game was to find a number between 1 and repeated sequence and reverse 10,000.
The teacher said it was between 5,000 and 10,000 in the short run.

As adults, we don't commit to one hypothesis, so we tend to seek confirmation.

Ted, a college graduate, is very careful about details.

He doesn't seem to have much creativity and rarely tells jokes.

He will carry it out according to the rules if given a task.

You are looking for a match between Ted and the prototype of an accountant or a writer.

The number of accountants and writers in a group did not change predictions of Ted's occupation.
Participants were swayed by the similarity of Ted's personality characteristics to the stereotype of a writer, who may be perceived as creative, tolerant, and open to experience.
Ted's profile sounds like one of the accountants we associate with.

The rule of thumb is that the similarity in the personality profile is more powerful than the odds of selecting an accountant from a group with a small number of accountants.

The representativeness heuristic can be illustrated with a simple exercise.

Drop a few pennies on the table from your pocket.

You and a friend are tossing coins.

Your friend is throwing heads.

bet on the next coin toss Before reading further, write down your reasons for making the choice.

We expect the number of heads and tails to be the same in the long run and random processes.

Research findings and our experiences show that fair coins behave this way.

The prior tosses don't affect the odds.

A series of heads and tails that don't look like chance is evidence that a non-chance process is going on.
The runs of heads and tails appear to be ordered.
Some gamblers assume that they have a better chance of predicting the next toss than they actually do.

We think that easily recalled items occur more frequently than those that are hard to remember.

We assume that what comes to mind easily is also more likely to happen in the future.
Most people think that the answer is a victim.
The person most likely to die in a drunk driving accident is a drunk driver according to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.
It's easier to remember incidents in which an innocent person was the victim of a drunk-driving accident because they are considered news.
Drunk drivers die on the nation's highways every day, yet few of those accidents receive media attention.

The events covered by the media can affect how we assess our risk of accidents, catastrophes, or diseases.

Two of your friends are talking about the relative safety of traveling by plane or automobile to a vacation destination.
They decided to travel by car because of the news coverage of the recent plane crash.
Dramatic examples of airline accidents are easy to recall.
More people are killed in cars and trucks in a single week than in plane crashes over the course of a year.
In 2009, 33,808 people were killed in traffic crashes.
In a typical week, 650 people die in traffic crashes involving passenger vehicles, trucks, and motorcycles in the United States.
The total number of deaths attributed to scheduled commercial air carriers was 52.

We compare the information we have obtained to a standard to make decisions.

A bird strike caused the engines to fail on a U.S. Airways jet.

The plane made a landing in the river.
There were no deaths in this plane crash, but the coverage of these types of accidents leads many to underestimate the regularity of airline accidents.

Your answer depends on the basis of negative or positive outcomes.

These choices are examples of the novel and appropriate noticeable difference we discussed in Chapter 3.

We tend to see the benefits of a comparison in relative terms.

We want to stay away from negative outcomes when we make decisions.

This tendency could cause us to fail to see that the way identical information is presented can make a difference in decision making.
If you have lung cancer, the treatment options are surgery or radia tion.
The results of lung cancer patients who had surgery are told to you by your physician, so you can make an informed decision.
After one year, 77% of lung cancer patients choose radiation, and 22% are still alive five years later.
Most people would choose surgery.

The framing should be changed a bit.

After one year, 32% of patients who chose surgery are dead, and 34% are dead after five years.

After one year, 23% of patients who chose radiation are dead, and 22% are dead after five years.

These scenarios were not caused by stupidity or a malfunctioning brain.

The mind has evolved to be effective in situations that are most likely to arise.
We've developed methods of making decisions that work well, but not all of the time.

We are able to come up with creative and impressive solutions when faced with problems.

A group of judges were asked to make global ratings based on their own definitions of creativity.

Both verbal and artistic products were rated by the judges.
We can't define what is and isn't creative because people seem to agree.
The consensual assessment of creativity yields at least moderately reliable rat ings of creativity of a number of products as well as across cultures.

Intelligence tests were not designed to measure creativity, so the correlation between creativity and intelgence is weak.

High intelligence does not guarantee high creativity.

There is a judging of creativity.

Individuals with different levels of creativity created the mosaics.

The answer is a tree: family tree, palm tree, and tree diagram.

The answer is a table.

The answers can be found on the last page.

Think like a line.

Creative thinking is related more closely to divergent thinking.

It is possible to see aspects of an item that are real and useful but not the primary focus of our attention.

The items in Table 8-2 are similar to items found on the Remote Associates Test.
The test was designed to measure the process of making new associations.
Success on the test requires flexibility in making associations, use of language and originality.

Creative people are not afraid of hard work because they give it their all.

A willingness to take risks and expose oneself to the potential for failure is a mark of a creative person.

When she tapes a 3-hour session with a dancer, she may find 30 seconds of useful material, which means she rejects 99.7% of her day's work, a process she says is painful but necessary for the creative process to occur.
She is in contact with the world's greatest and most famous dancers.

The stage absorbed the energy of her fall and injected it back into her.

My eyes would be back to normal before I knew it.

People can put their self-esteem on the line for the chance of more rewards than they could ever imagine.

In order to find a light bulb that wouldn't burn out quickly, Thomas Edison conducted more than 2,000 experiments.
Fred Smith's idea for Federal Express was not feasible.
Federal Express is a leader in delivering packages around the world.
Creative people tolerate ambiguity, complexity, or a lack of symmetry.

When we rearrange what is known in new and unusual ways, we can come up with new ideas, goods, and services.

New associations and arrange ments can be formed with humor and playfulness.

When Mozart wrote, "When I feel well and in a good humor, or when I am taking a drive or walking after a good meal," he was aware of this possibility.

75% of the students watched a comedy film before trying to solve the problem.

Only a small percentage of students solved the problem by not watching a comedy film.
Isen and her colleagues put students into three groups.
The students in the first group watched a comedy film, the second group exercised for 2 minutes, and the third group had no special preparation.
The students tried to solve problems that were similar to those in the test.

The mo of venues like business tivator affects the person more than the environments, according to another perspective on the motivation underlying creativity.

Task develop and apply technology are Intrinsic motivators.

The rewards are noticeable and distinct from the task, so extrinsic motivators tend to be goal-focusing.

In how they focus, people vary.
Some people focus on goals while others focus on the task.
Depending on how they influence a person's focus, there may be either benefits or negative effects.

The right mix of motivation is what makes creativity flourish.

An automatic vote recorder was the first invention of Thomas Edison.

He was told that efficiency in lawmaking was not something Congress wanted.
He said that the only reason he invented was to make money, because he didn't have time to modify the world to fit his inventions.

Businesses prosper by creating new products and markets.

The business community is interested in developing their employees' creativity.
Frito-Lay and Texas Instruments have introduced innovative methods into their train ing.
It takes the right attitude and technology in a work climate that is receptive to creative thinking and new ideas to enhance creativity.
Organizational and individual creativity are locked together.
Control over one's work and sufficient time to think--facilitate creativity.
Encouraging risk taking, generating ideas, and sharing ideas are some of the ganizational influences on creativity.
3M's Scotchgard was an example of the effects of these influences.
An idea that came from outside the organization was allowed to be developed by scientists in one unit of the company and then applied to another research unit.

Potential problems that might be solved with creative solutions are one of the keys to developing creativity.

A track coach paid attention when his runners complained that their running shoes were causing blisters.
The coach was confident that he could improve the design of shoes.
He found lightweight materials that improved the cushion and traction by cutting patterns from grocery bags.
The brand name of the shoes is Nike.

George de Mestral is a Swiss inventor.

His invention is well known.
He went hunting with his dog and accidentally brushed against a bush that covered both of them with burrs.
They were still clinging to his clothes when he tried to remove them.
A minor annoyance, but not to de Mestral.
After he got home, he looked at the burrs under a microscope and discovered that hundreds of tiny hooks on each burr had caught the threads of his pants.
The invention of Velcro was the result of this accident.

There are two companies that are known for their creativity.

Two companies value the creativity of their employees and provide work environments that help enhance it.

Flexible working schedules, open communication between employees and management, and allowing employees to pursue side projects of their own interest are some of the ways that both Facebook and Google help to enhance creativity in their workers.
According to the 20% rule, employees can spend 20% of their time on side projects that are of personal interest.
80% of their time is spent on their primary work project.
A creative work climate helps increase worker satisfaction and company profits.

People fail to develop creative ideas because they don't believe they can be creative.

To develop one's creativity, one needs to acknowledge and confront negative thoughts and replace them with positive thoughts.

I'll do a little bit at a time to get started.

Change can be injected into the lives of employees by creativity consultants.

They encourage employees to take a different route to work, listen to a different radio station, or read a different magazine.
These changes help employees break out of a rut, expose them to new ideas, and get them thinking instead of operating on autopilot.
Employees are encouraged to look around and make notes.

Creativity can take many forms.

Henry Ford said he combined the inventions of others into a car.
The ice cream machine added air to increase sudsing and allowed the bar to float.
The key to the initial success of Domino's Pizza was promising home delivery in 30 minutes or less.

Creative people can see something different than everyone else.

Arthur Fry, a chemist, was working with a glue that was to be used on bulletin boards.
One day while singing, he came up with the idea of using the glue on a bookmark to replace the little pieces of paper he used to mark his book.

Fry used glue to make Post-It Notes.

Try to figure out the other boxes.

The solutions can be found at the end of the chapter.

The experience of seeing has been successful in the past, even when it isn't the most viewed.

We make decisions by comparing the options until we get the right information.

Market products and services can be solved by relying on past experiences.

The methods were used to improve the problem.

There is an advantage to creating an external work.

You are playing a thought game with your task in mind.

Only experts in a field can offer that.

If we rely on the artist to make such judgments, we will lose our intelligence and creativity.

hank says "Mustang" creativity when asked to name a sports car.

A high negative correlation can be found in the tests of creativity and intelligence.

A low to moderate negative correlation can be found in the tests of creativity and intelligence.

Which is the best example of a functional number.

Sally can't use a saw.

The ability to develop, refine, and exchange ideas is dependent on the ability to communicate in language.

The child's cognitive abilities are dependent on language acquisition.

Between birth and the beginning of formal school, children learn to speak and understand language.

We understand almost every one of the sentences we read every day.

There are unique sounds that can be joined together to create a new sound.

Although there are 200 dif of the world, most languages only use 20 to 60 nemes.

It could be said in more than one way.

When we learn a foreign language, we experience a similar experience when we hear sound that conveys meaning.

One part of the organization of words has meaning.

The baby's early cries and other sounds are responses to the environment and internal needs.

Babies make the same sounds no matter what language their parents speak.

When infants are comfortable or when other caregivers attempt to communicate, these brief, vowel-like utterances can occur.

The pitch falls at the end of the sentence.
The pitch rises toward the end of the question when it is level.
Babies between 8 and 11 months have both patterns in their babbling.
If a baby is exposed to a language with different intonation patterns, his or her babbling will reflect them.

At about 1 year old, toddlers who hear English at home will say their first word.

The average toddler uses 50 words by the age of 18 months.
At about this age, toddlers combine two or more words to express a single idea, which results in the child's first sentence.
During the pre school years, vocabulary development continues at a rapid pace.
The table shows the sequence of language development from 2 months to 36 months.

There are three characteristics of the infant's language that psychologists are interested in.

Words are left out of a telegraph message as well as from other sentences.
The intent of the sentence is usually clear, especially if the con of language that enable them text helps listeners decipher the child's meaning.
Children seem to know how adults speak.

According to behaviorists, language is learned through imitation, association, and reinforcement.

Children listen to others talk and mimic their sounds.
Children repeat the words when par ents point to an object.
Sounds that don't resemble words may be extinguished.

The vocabulary was increased to 200 words.

The behavioral theory of language acquisition doesn't explain how new words and sentences are created.

Children should be given more credit for their language development.
We might be mistaken to think that parents teach children language.
Parents don't give explicit lessons in grammar.
The ability of children to master the complex rules of language and to use an extensive vocabulary within about 5 years suggests a built-in brain mechanism that makes this development possible.
In rare and extreme situations where access to language samples is denied, the acquisition of language is virtually guaranteed for children up to about age 5 or 6 and becomes more difficult thereafter.
Most college students in foreign language classes know how to develop a language quickly.

The easier to learn patterns have been added to the world's languages.

A combination of learning and nativist theories is favored by most psychologists.

Some of our linguistic abilities seem to be innately determined, while others are acquired through learning.

Researchers don't agree on which behaviors belong in which category.

Second language acquisition is gaining more and more interest as the global community grows.

There are a lot of questions when it comes to learning a second language.

The questions should be addressed individually.

According to the staged develop ment of a second language, all second language learners progress through the same types of sentence formation and are almost universal.

The pattern illustrated in Table 8-4 tends to apply to the creation of a negation in the English language.
Different language constructions have different stages.
It appears that all second language learners will go through these stages and that explicit language instruction doesn't work to help them skip them.
Second language learners tend to acquire the use of different morphemes in a predicable sequence.

A majority of people agree that native language learning is tied to a critical period.

In native language acquisition, the criti cal period is infancy through puberty.
Children who are not exposed to language will never learn useful language.
The question is if there is a critical period for learning a non-native language.
It's thought that a critical period for learning a non-native language doesn't exist, but it's also thought that acquiring a second language becomes more difficult as one gets older.
An older adult may not be able to learn a new language the same way as a younger adult.
Think about your own experiences.
When you were in high school or college, learning a new language might have been difficult, but not impossible.

The question of whether a person can become native-like in their new language is connected to the idea of a critical period of second language learning.

It is based on VanPatten & Benati.

Chapter eIGht sounds like a native speaker with little to no accent and proper sentence construction.

It is possible for a non-native speaker of a language to become a native.

Similar to the debate about a critical period in second language learning, it is believed that a younger person is more likely to become a native than a person who begins learning a new language later in life.

Linguistic constraints and processing constraints are the basic constraints to acquiring a second language.

Second language learners are influenced by their native language and common features, according toLinguistic constraints.
For example, is it common to end a word in the English language with a consonant, but not in the Japanese or Chinese language?
The native Japanese and Chinese speakers may have difficulty pronouncing the English words with a letter at the end.
The limitations of our own cognitive systems are referred to as pro cessing constraints.
You have to do many things at once in the process of learning a new language.
You need to remember all of the words for items and objects, the correct tense of the verbs to use, the proper grammar and syntax, as well as physically creating the sounds.
Having to do all of this with an unpracticed language can overload one's working memory and result in slower processing or forgetting.

When we think of a language, we often think of an oral one that is dependent on auditioning.

Not all languages fit in this category.
A signed version of English is not a signed version of ASL.

Thousands of manual signs and gestures are used by people who use American Sign Language.

Words are made from hand shapes, hand motions, and posi tions of the hands in front of the body.
There is no universal sign language.

Although they do not involve spoken words, sign languages are highly structured linguistic systems with all of the grammatical complexity found in spoken languages.

They are produced by the same parts of the brain involved in spoken language.
Children raised in an environment in which they have no access to spoken language and are not taught sign language have been known to invent their own sign language.
The education of the deafness population used to be limited to lip reading and speech training.
The use of sign language can make it difficult for hearing parents to encourage their children to learn English.
The policy has begun to change as a result of pressure from the deafness community.
Many people with deafness prefer learning sign language over speech therapy.

Thousands of hearing people have learned American Sign Language as a second language, and it is offered as part of the curriculum in schools and colleges.

We have seen that thinking can include visual images as well as concepts.

Language can have more dramatic influences on our thinking.

Some cultures have number terms that make it difficult to understand situations that require other numerical evaluations.

There are 60 football players and 30 pairs of cleats.
English speakers would have no difficulty understanding that some of the football players are going to be without cleats; however, people in a culture that has number terms only for "one-two-many" would find it hard to describe and understand the situation.

The experimenters gave the objects either of two names, while the people were shown drawings that could represent either of two objects.

The original language labels used by the experimenters influenced the par ticipants' memory for and subsequent drawings of the objects.

George Orwell considered lynching a potential weapon that could be used to exploit, oppress, or manipulate people.

Although Orwell's account of language as a tool for po litical control was fictional, there are many current examples of the use of language to influence and control thinking.

Business, educational, and governmental organizations can use language that can affect perception and thinking.

The verbal labels they had been given influenced the glasses they drew later.

Rightsizing sources are Lederer and Lutz.

"Doublespeak is not a slip of the tongue, or language used out of ignorance, but is instead a very con scious use of language by those in power to achieve their ends at our expense" (Lutz, 1990, p. xii).

No one is deceived by these uses of language.

Few of us realize that a military unit is killing the enemy when a Pentagon spokesman announces that they are "servicing the target".

A skilled doctor makes a termine our thoughts, but examples like these indicate that careful selection of words can accurate diagnosis, and then he steers our thoughts in certain directions.

A skilled doctor makes the possibility that the doctor is female.

Look at the images that come to mind when reading the following sentences.

A patient needs to rest after taking medicine.

A business executive needs to consider all aspects of an issue before making a decision.

If the images that came to your mind were mostly men, you are not alone.

When they read these sentences, most people call up such im ages.

Almost half of the human race are girls and women, yet they are left out in the daily speech.

These examples show how the words we use can guide our thinking.

The children created their own stories after hearing the story.

Children's ideas can be influenced by the use of a single word.

The person or people in the sentences should not be suggested to be male.

Write down your answers.

When the words are associated with being male, some wording changes may be needed.

Guidelines for gender-inclusive language have been developed by professional organizations such as the American Psychological Association.

Intelligence is one of the most controversial topics in psychology and has a long history in psychology.

This broad term is often used to encompass skills that we have focused on so far in this chapter, such as skills in language and problem solving.

Between birth and the beginning of formal education, one's native language.

There is evidence that people learn to speak and understand language.

Guidelines have been developed for using language in a Gen developmental path instead of native language learning.

Learning in a neutral way.

The best summary of the sentences is still babbles on occasion.

Babies form strings with which to convey ideas.

They use their eyebrows to express their ideas.

Brain scans are being used to speak languages.

The occipital lobes are the most important parts of the brain.

You have taken psychological tests in school.

The psychological tests are similar to the tests used in other sciences in that they are composed of observations made on a small sample of a person's behavior.

Such tests can be used to measure differences in people's intelligence and personality.
The purpose of one of the first psychological tests was to identify children with below average intellectual ability so that they could be given a better education.

Think about what makes a person smart.

Before reading further, write down your answer.
Robert and his colleagues asked people in supermarkets, train stations, and a col lege library to record behaviors and characteristics related to the concept of intel ligence.
The researchers gave the list of behaviors and characteristics to other people, who rated the importance of each as an element of intelligence.
Practical problem solving, verbal ability, and social competence were emphasized in the laypersons' descriptions of intelligence.

The descriptions of intelligence offered by people in supermarkets or college libraries were obtained in the United States, but how a person defines intelligence depends on whom we ask, and the answers differ across time and place.

Culture influences what behaviors are perceived as examples of intelligent behavior.
Culture can affect the processes that underlie intelligent behavior as well as the direction that intellectual development takes.

The process of thinking is more important in Japan than in the United States.

Americans place more importance on external appearances and outcomes when listing intelligence characteristics.
The conceptions of intelligence among Taiwanese Chinese included self-assertion.
There may be significant differences between Eastern and Western conceptions of intelligence because of the skills that cultures value.

The tests of indigenous intelligence that required the children from a rural village to perform a task that is adaptive for them to investigate the effects of heredity were the result of his interest in learning how to use natural herbal medicines to fight illness.

It is important to know that the definition of intelligence used in the United States does not match the definition used in other parts of the world.

Efforts to develop tests to quantify intelligence are a Western phenomenon.

The measurement and understanding of intelligence would not seem controversial in the United States because of the level of agreement on the characteristics of an intelligent person.

This is one of the most controversial topics in psychology.
The next section explores how psychologists measure intelligence, why these measures were developed, and why the concept of intelligence is controversial.

Sir Fran cis Galton was an Englishman who studied differences in intelligence.

The wealthy man's passion for measurement convinced him that almost anything could be measured, from beauty to personality to how boring a lecture might be.
He shared an interest in heredity with his half-cousin.
Human differences in intelligence and ability were thought to be caused by heredity.
He traced the family trees of about 1,000 distinguished artists, judges, military commanders, poets, scientists, and statesmen and found that a large proportion of them had prominent family members.

In his laboratory in London, Galton set out to measure differences in degree of eminence and intelligence.

In 1884 visitors stopped in to have their eyesight and reac tion time measured.
According to Galton, highly successful people perceive the world more accurately than less successful people.

Their reactions should be quicker than those of less skilled people.

Alfred Binet was a French psychologist who was considering ways to measure intelligence.

He decided that he was responsible for the development of the first intelligence memory and reasoning.
The French Ministry of Education made a decision in the 19th century.
The test was created to make sure children attend school.
The schools were not obligated to teach the result of a specific task given to children with widely varying ability levels because slow learners usually did not at to Binet and his colleague.
The curriculum was geared to average and above average to create a method to identify students.
The decision made it necessary for teachers to teach children who were learning at a slower rate with a wider range of abilities.
The education of the majority of students was studied by a French commission in 1904.

Their search for an ob Measure of intelligence derived jective measure as the basis for class placement decisions concerning the children led by comparing an individual's them to Binet.

Draw designs from an individual and repeat a string of spoken digits.

Children of a certain age have an ability level that is typical of them, whereas children of a different age have an ability level that is different.
To determine a child's mental age, they compared the child's performance to that of the average child.
A mental age of 8 indicates that a child's performance is similar to that of other 8-year-olds.
An 8-year-old child with a mental age of 11 performed better than the average 8-year-old.
Binet believed that the use of his scale would increase the likelihood of children getting an appropriate edu cation.
He expected that the attention, memory, and judgment could be improved with appropriate methods.

The Binet-Simon scale was revised by a psychologist in the United States.

The first version of his intelligence scale was published in 1916 and has been modified many times since.

The first version had a different calculation of intelligence.

Instead of simply assigning a mental age, Terman used the following calculation of dividing the mental age by the person's chronological age to eliminate decimals.
One's IQ is a ratio of MA divided by CA.

The child's IQ would be 13 if they were 12.

It was difficult for David Wechsler to test adults with the intelligence scale when he was chief psycholo gist at the hospital.

Time limits on some items made it difficult for a number of adults to take the test.
Even though the concept of MA could be applied to children, it couldn't be applied to adults.
The MAs of the average 28- and 29-year-old are not likely to differ because the pace of change in intelligence slows in the adult years.
The new intelligence test was developed for adults.
The scores on this test are calculated by comparing a person's score with scores obtained by other people of a range of ages.

The WaiS-iV is an intelligence test that consists of verbal and performance items.

There are examples of items on the WaiS-iV.

Pearson education, inc., upper Saddle River, new Jersey granted permission to print and electronically reproduce.

A psychological test is like a three-legged stool, if one leg is missing or broken, it collapses.

The psychological tests have three legs that represent the essential elements for their effective and appropriate use: reliability, validity, and standardiza tion.
The principles apply to all psychological tests, whether they are designed to measure intelligence or personality.

A psychological test is not worth much if it results in inconsistent results.

You might be happy to know that your bathroom scale shows you have lost 12 pounds.

Learning disabilities can be revealed by the information from an intelligence test.

If the scale were a psychological test, it would be necessary to identify a child's areas measure.

Several approaches are used to determine whether a test is reliable.

They can measure the similarity in the scores obtained on the two occasions using a correlation coefficients.

The test is reliable if the scores on the two forms are the same.

If the correlation coefficients are.80 or higher, a psychological test has good reliability.

The reliability of the test is determined by the developers and Wechsler intelligence tests.
We need to know if the test is valid before we use it.

A psychological test can be reliable, but only if it is valid.

An unreliable test can't be valid.
If we asked people to write down the names of the Seven Dwarfs, we could measure anxiety levels.
The written reports might be reliable, but they wouldn't have been reliable if it weren't for anxiety.
Reliability does not guarantee validity.

The purpose for which the test was designed and the type of test they use varies.

If you can demonstrate that the test reflects the course content, validity can be established.
When a test is used to predict whether someone will succeed in a particular task or job, the test should be high.

The weather is one way psychologists establish test validity.

The development of procedures "ums" and "ahs" during the speech, ability to maintain eye contact with the audience, and administering psychological and several other behaviors.

Establishing the validity of intelligence tests is not a simple task.

A large sample of people ratings of students fall between.40 and.60 in correlation with the distribution of scores obtained.

Ordinary problems have little relation to the knowledge or skills acquired in school.

Intelligence tests can be controversial.

The instructions, time limits, and scoring procedures have to be the same every time.

The development of norms is an important part of test standardization.

Maybe you compared your score with a friend's.

You were looking for information to help you understand your score by comparing it to others.
The frame of reference is what we need to inter pret scores on a test.

Form a and B are the two forms of the test that measure test anxiety.

The curve has been useful to psychologists 98% of the time.

Less often, scores further away from the mean occur.

A certain percentage of the population has Symmetrical bell-shaped distribution height, weight, anxiety, and intelligence.

A majority of people get scores near the middle of the distribution of test scores.
The average height of an American is 66.5 inches.
Most adults are close to the average height of 86 inches.
The av erage score is set at 100 and measures of intelligence fit this distribution.
Many biological and psychological variables are distributed in the population according to the bell-shaped curve.
In the large middle section of the bell-shaped curve, about two-thirds of Americans have IQs between 85 and 115.

Mental retarda tion can begin before the age of 18.

Brain damage from automobile accidents or other forms of trauma can cause deficits after age 18.

Provisions for educating all children with handicaps are included in Public Law 94-142.

The law brought attention to the needs of handicapped children.
Chapter eIGht is about sensory disabilities, communication disorders, and intellectual disabilities.
Some of the major egories of exceptional individuals are listed in Table 8.

Children who are perceived to be exceptional are often evaluated using standard intelligence tests.

Because there are many forms of exceptionality, psychologists have developed other assessment instruments.
Observation of classroom behaviors by teachers is an important part of the assessment of behavior disorders.

There is no standard approach to dealing with the needs of exceptional children.

There are interventions that are appropriate for children with mental retardation but not those that are appropriate for children with verbal and physical aggression.

He used wax type of educational settings for his children because he was legally required to educate them with students who do not have disabilities and in the most normal blind.

The study of people who became affectionately known as "Termites" enabled film was viewed by Dustin Hoffman to put to rest some myths about gifted people.

They did better academically, and there are some works of art that you can view at www.wawro.net.

They had more interests.

They read more books.

As adults, they were better adjusted.

They were better at learning.

A group of mentally disabled children were described in an 1886 lecture.

Some savants can report dates from hundreds of years ago even though they have low scores on intelligence tests.

Most cases of savant syndrome involve remarkable memory with little understanding of what is being described.
Tom, a blind boy, had a vocabulary of less than 100 words.
He could play thousands of musical pieces from memory.
He was a player for the president of the United States.
Tom was asked to listen to two unfamiliar musical pieces, 13 and 20 ability in a specific area, and he played them perfectly from memory.

The categories represent deviations from the average in some aspect of intellectual functioning.

Many children who are identified as falling into one of these categories of exceptionality receive some form of special education.
Intelligence tests specially developed for use with certain populations, such as the deafness, are often used to collect information that is helpful in identifying cases of exceptionality.

These talents are not assessed by intel igence tests.

It is difficult to determine the prevalence of gifted and talented people.

The rare syndrome tends to occur more often among males.

Approximately 1 in 2,000 people with brain damage or mental retardation have savants, and about 1 in 10 people with autism.

It's a rare mental disorder that begins during infancy or early childhood.
It is characterized by failure to respond to people in socially appropriate ways, by serious deficits in speech, language, and communication, and by abnormal relation ships to objects and events.
Some researchers believe that there is a link between savant skills and autism.
Evidence suggests that people with savant syndrome have suffered damage to the left hemisphere, which results in some form of compensation by the right hemisphere.
The right hemisphere is associated with all of the abilities exhibited by people with this syndrome.
The brain and intelligence are studied by psychologists and other scientists.
No model of brain func tion will be complete until it can explain the rare condition.
Although the cause of savant syndrome is a mystery, its existence makes us rethink the concept of general intelligence.

Intelligence is an ability to acquire knowledge, to reason, and to solve problems.

The concept of intelligence is credited to Sir Francis Galton.
He might be considered a lumper.
Most of the intelligence tests that were developed after his work yield a single number, which may lead us to oversimplify the nature of intelligence.
Intelligence is seen as a collection of abilities that reflect a variety of strengths and weaknesses.
There are several theories suggesting that there is more than one type of intel ligence.

People who do well on one type of intelligence task tend to do well on most other tasks, even though their scores on these tasks are not always the same.

He proposed that the tasks reflect both types of intelligence.
Specific intelligence is related to the particular task and is responsible for the fact that each person does better on some tasks than others.

There is no universal agreement on the definition of intelligence and how it should be measured.

Any single number on an intelligence test will not provide an adequate account of a person's ability.
According to Stephen Ceci, intelligence is not singular.

Success in life outside of school may have little to do with the kind of intelligence rewarded in school.

Robert believes that there are several ways to be effective.
The public understands and values the third type of intelligence, but it is not included in standard intelligence tests.

Most intelligence tests place a premium on speed, which is not relevant in most decisions.

Poor, minority, and migrant children are more likely to be discriminated against by this hurried approach to testing.

The triarchic theory of intelligence is the basis of efforts to match instruction to the strengths students exhibit in analytical, creative, or practical intelligence.

These efforts are still in the early stages of development and hold promise for students' success.
Students receive instruction that emphasizes their strength after their strengths are assessed.
The focus of the evaluation is consistent with the component of the model emphasized in the course.

The tests were designed to predict academic achievement.

They might be different if they had been developed by artists, salespeople, or politicians.
There is more to intelligence than the current intelligence tests show.
Intelligence may be manifest in different ways by each person's strengths and weaknesses.

In poets, lawyers, speakers, writers, and rap singers, mastery, love, and ability to use language and words are found.

It is possible to hear, recognize, and manipulate patterns in music.

Sensitivity to pitch and tone is evident in composers, singers, and musicians.

It is possible to detect patterns, think logically, and carry out mathematical operations.

In science and mathematics, it's used in solving mathematics problems and in logical thinking.

The ability to represent the spatial world is likely to be found in pilots, navigators, sculptors, architects, and championship chess players.

The ability to use and control parts of the body is found in dancers, surgeons, athletes, and craftspeople.

Sensitivity to people, ability to understand what motivates them, and ability to recognize their intentions, understanding how to work effectively with people, and how to lead and to follow, may be found in people involved in sales, teaching, counseling, or politics.

Understanding one's emotions and being able to draw on them to guide one's behavior to understand oneself and use that information to regulate one's own life.

Questions about life, death, and ultimate realities can be posed.

Sensitivity to other features of the natural world and ability to discriminate among living things are two things that can be experienced.

Our past as hunters, gatherers, and farmers is likely to be found in roles such as chef, and landscaper.

Chapter eIGht howard gardner suggests that there is more to intelligence than just scores on tests.

People can manifest intelligence in many different ways.
Anyone who has watched Oprah Winfrey's show knows her high level of intelligence.
The characteristics of movement are exhibited by these soccer players.
The band is known for their music.

For example, you can think creatively, when appropriate, and give examples practically in a particular domain.

You can write a poem, analyze a work of howard literature, or discuss the relevance of a gardner's multiple intelligences.

People's scores on tests of verbal and mathematical ability should not be the sole factor used to evaluate them.

The current intelligence tests have been at the center of controversy.

The conclusion that assessments based on intelligence tests are always accurate should not be based on high reliability coefficients.

When the scores are applied without a full understanding of their meaning, it can lead to abuse.

The misuse of psychological testing is shown in the following examples.

We learned earlier in the chapter that Galton believed that intelligence was mined by heredity.

If more intelligent citizens were allowed to have children, the general intelligence of the nation could be increased.
More than 60,000 mentally ill, retarded, and disabled people were sterilized without their consent in the early and mid-20th century.

Intelligence test scores were used to prevent some European immigrants from entering the United States.

The foreign arrivals lacked the tests of the U.S. culture.

Percentage of differences among people to look at a geometric figure and then use a pencil to copy it on paper.

A group of people in a characteristic item seems easy to us, but many of the immigrants had never seen intelligence that is believed to be pencil.
The results were used to classify some immigrants as feebleminded.

In the 20th century, the people responsible for testing immigrants' intelligence believed that the test scores reflected the operation of heredity.

The question of how heredity and environment determine intelligence has been wrongly assumed to be one factor alone.

The heritability of a characteristic is not influenced by inherited factors.

Inherited factors are responsible for that characteristic when it is 100% in the 20th century.

Most estimates of heritability of understanding influence intelligence are in the range of 50% to 60% of environmental conditions on test scores.

There is a chance that in the near future breakthrough will occur in the identification of genes responsible for general cognitive ability, as a result of research identifying the specific genes responsible for a number of forms of mental re tardation, reading disability, and late-onset Alzheimer's disease.

Evidence shows that genetic factors can affect intelligence in older people.

Heritability estimates are not constant across the lifespan; rather, they change with age ranges.

Researchers were interested in twins who were 80 years of age or older and able to take part in a 1.5 hour testing period, because they found a sample of twins from the Swedish Twin Registry.
The heritability of general cognitive ability was quite high.
The increase in heritability is due to the fact that the environment plays a major role in intellectual development as young children, so even a child with a genetic predisposition for high intelligence might perform poorly on an intelligence test if he has been raised in an impoverished environment.
As we grow into adults, the environment becomes less of an influence on our intellectual development and our genetic predispositions become a bigger factor on how well we will perform on an IQ test.

Environmental factors can affect heritable characteristics.

The brain and nervous system are damaged when undigested phenylalanine accumulates in the body.

The IQ scores of people with PKU who are not treated are often below 50.

A baby can be diagnosed with PKU with a diagnostic test shortly after birth.

Babies with PKU are put on a diet that is low in phenyl alanine.
The special diet should be continued through the adolescent years.
The majority of treatment centers in the United States and Canada recommend that people with PKU continue their restricted diet throughout their lives.
PKU can be changed by changing the environment.
heredity isn't necessarily destiny.

PKU doesn't tell us much about how heredity affects intelligence in most people.

Write down your answer before you read it.

Researchers estimate the degree to which intelligence is affected by inherited factors by examining correlations between intelligence test scores of family members.

Intelligence scores in families should be correlated.
The study of twins can be used to investigate the influence of heredity and environment on intelligence.

Half of their genes are in common, but they were only born together.

Twins who have lower correlations.
The statistics show that there are influences on intelligence that come from two different sperm.
No plausible alternative to genetic influence exists to explain the genetically related as siblings IQ similarity in monozygotic twins reared apart.

The correlation between test scores and environment is due to the fact that family members share similar environments.

When twins are raised in different environments, the correlation between their scores is still high.
It's not clear whether heredity or environment has an influence on intelligence.

Researchers studied the intelligence test scores of adopted children to understand the effects of similar environments and heredity.

Table 8-7 shows the cor relation between the scores of adoptive parents and their adopted children.
The intelligence scores of adopted children tend to correlate more with their biological parents than with their adoptive parents.
The IQ of the biological parent is a better predictor of a child's IQ than the IQ of the adoptive parent.

Studies show that the environment plays a role in intelligence even though heredity is important.

We don't like a number of the environmental influences.

Intelligence can be affected by a variety of factors.

Exposure to lead is linked to intellectual deficits.
In Taiwan, children who had been exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls had small but visible intellectual deficits that did not decrease with age.

In the 1930s, Howard Skeels decided that tender loving care and stimulation could be beneficial for two children in an Iowa orphanage.

Skeels placed the sisters in a home for mentally retarded adolescents.

He was surprised to see that the intelligence test scores had increased and that they were alert and active.
The attention and stimulation provided by the mentally retarded adolescents and the staff of the institution made a difference.
Skeels was encouraged to give a similar level of stimulation for a larger group of children.
Evidence showed that early stimulation could affect intelligence.

Performance on IQ tests has risen slowly since the 1930s.

The increase in IQ scores has been found in industrialized countries as well as developing countries.

The average number of correct responses in samples from 20 countries has gone up in the last 50 years.
The effect may be due to environmental factors, such as improved education, or it may be the result of a glitch in the tests.
The average test score has not changed even though perfor mance has improved.
IQ scores are not an absolute measure, they are compared with everyone else's scores.
As the raw scores improve, the standard on which the IQ scores are based also increases.
Your relative score won't change much if everyone else is improving.
A raw score of 100 in the 1930s would have been equal to an IQ of 85 by the end of the last century.

For almost 30 years, the idea that birth order is related to intelligence scores has been the subject of articles and advice from professionals and non professionals.

"Dumber by the Dozen" was one of the provocative arti cles.
"Studies have shown that children reared in small families are brighter, more creative, and more vigorous than those from large families," said Dr. Joyce Brothers in her answer to a mother of four who asked if she should consider having another baby.
Let's look at it.

The model says that birth order, family size, and child spacing affect intellectual development in children.

Evidence shows that average IQ declines with birth order.
The average fifth-born child had a lower IQ than the average third-born child.
The pattern was clear.

The relation was reported by Joseph Lee Rodgers and his colleagues.

All first-born, then all second-born, then all third-born children, and so on are taken from the sample and average intelligence scores of each group.
Some recommend keeping families small because of the declining intelligence score with birth order.

The data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth was used by Rodgers and his col leagues to look at the data within families of a given size.

The results show that the belief that large families make low-IQ children is not true.

"Parents with lower IQs in the modern United States have larger families and have been for some time" (Rodgers et al., 2000, p. 610).

Birth order can be used to compare across families, but it can also be used to confound variables.
The decline in intelligence with birth order is due to the fact that lower-IQ parents have larger families and these families differ from the rest of the population in variables that are correlated with intelligence.

There are many good reasons for parents to limit their family sizes.

The belief that a larger family will lead to children with lower IQs appears to be wrong.

Write down your answer before you read it.

A close look at the correlations in Table 8-7 led some researchers to conclude that both heredity and environment strongly influence the development of intelligence.

The correlation between the intelligence scores of unrelated children should reflect their lack of family relationships if heredity controls intelligence.

There is a correlation between the intelligence test scores of unrelated children.
There are correlations for identical twins raised apart and together.
Environmental factors have an effect on intelligence.

Researchers assume that the twins are treated the same in most studies of intelligence.

Twins and siblings in general are not treated the same as before.

They have found that siblings tend to grow up in environments that are different from each other.

The non-shared environment plays a major role in accounting for differences among siblings in intelligence and personality.

Twins aged 80 years and older have the same intelligence scores.
The study found a high esti heritability.
The non-shared environment accounted for 27% of the differences in intelligence among older people.
Differences in environment can affect intelligence in old age.

The intelligence testing controversy continues.

There are differences in the average intelligence scores attained by members of different racial and ethnic groups.

The average intelligence scores obtained by African Americans are lower than those of white Americans.

There is a high degree of overlap in the distribution of intelligence scores for all groups.

Although individual differences in intelligence are due in part to heredity, the existence of group differences in IQ scores does not necessarily suggest that there are people who are smarter than average.

Measures of intelligence can be impacted by family size and other variables.

Characteristics that are affected by heredity can be affected by environmental factors.

The plants that grow in barren soil will be shorter on average than the plants that grow in fertile soil, if we take a bag of seeds and sow half in fertile soil and the other half in barren soil.
If seeds are planted in barren soil, they are not likely to grow to their full potential.
The average difference between the two groups may be due to environmental factors, such as the quality of the soil, but the differences among the plants within each group may be due to heredity.
IQ scores can reflect environmental factors such as academic background, quality of education, and the availability of resources such as books and educational toys.

Critics of intelligence tests argue that we need to take a closer look at the tests themselves.

Intelligence tests can predict the performance of children in school.

Group differences in test scores might be related to the tests themselves.

Intelligence tests are biased against members of other cultural groups because they reflect white, middle-class values.
The tests are written in standard English.

Some test questions assume that the basic social unit is the nuclear family, which consists of a mother, a father, and their children.

The groups that have a high rate of nonnuclear families are placed at a disadvan tage to answer the questions.

Students' attitudes and approach to standardized tests can affect their performance according to Claude Steele.

According to Steele, African-American students face additional pres sures in that a poor performance can be seen as confirmation of negative stereotypes about African Americans as a group.
African-American and white students were given a test composed of difficult verbal items from the Graduate Record Examination.

The results showed that African-American students who thought they were solving problems performed better than white students who did the same.

The African-American students who were told that the test measured their intellectual potential performed worse than the other students.
All students were asked to write down their race before taking the test.
African-American students who felt they were being evaluated as a group tried to deal with stereotype vulnerability by increasing their efforts, which led them to work inefficiently and inaccurately.
Some attempts to reduce the impact of stereotype threat on test performance have led to increases in test performance, however it does appear that stereotype threat can have an effect.

There are scientific, political, and social implications to the debate over test scores.

According to Herrnstein and Murray, there are differences in intelligence among different groups.
IQ scores can be used to determine such attributes and behaviors as em ployment, income, welfare dependence, and quality of parental behavior.
Low IQ is the best explanation of why some people never get off welfare, why crime is rampant in the inner cities, and why so many teenage girls get pregnant.
The argument suggests that educational and social welfare programs will have limited effectiveness because heredity is primarily responsible for the problems of low-income groups.

A number of researchers have pointed out that intelligence does matter and that intelligence scores are related to job training and performance.

Critics note that Herrnstein and Murray fail to distinguish between correlation and causation and thus draw inap propriate conclusions.
It's true that people living below the poverty line are more likely to have lower IQs and poorer health.
We don't know if cause-and-effect relations exist among these behaviors.
Lack of financial resources and inadequate schooling are some of the environmental factors that could lead to these behaviors.

The debate over how to interpret IQ scores will be going on for a long time.

The issue is complex and the evidence suggests that performance on stan dardized tests reflects genetic and environmental factors.
Group differences can be shown to be based on test scores.
There is a lot of overlap among all groups in test scores.

The widely used test was Binet's tests.

There are three characteristics of a good psychological test.

Studies of testing procedures for adopted children.

The majority of the scores are clustered around a question about one's race, with fewer scores found at either extreme.

An assignment has been given to you by your professor.

Evidence supports the idea that intel igence is graduate.

The idea of identifying the things you enjoy doing is supported by the evidence.

The concept is defined by the fact that the geometric figure has the letters SQuaRe, 4 and ciRcLe in it.

The contents of glass 2 should be poured into glass 5.

Coins 1, 2, 4, and 6 are already in place.