Unit 4: Harmony and Voice Leading I: Chord Function, Cadence, and Phrase

Diatonic Chords, Roman Numerals, and Harmonic Function

Harmony in tonal music isn’t just “chords that sound nice.” In common-practice style (the musical language emphasized in AP Music Theory part-writing and analysis), chords have jobs. Those jobs create direction: music feels like it leaves home, builds tension, and returns. Understanding harmonic function helps you predict why certain progressions feel complete, why others feel unfinished, and how phrases are shaped.

What “function” means in tonal harmony

A harmonic function is the role a chord plays relative to the key’s tonic (the “home” pitch and chord). Function works like grammar in a sentence:

• Tonic function feels stable, like “home base.”
• Predominant function feels like motion away from home and preparation for tension.
• Dominant function feels tense and pointed; it strongly wants resolution back to tonic.

A crucial idea is that the same chord quality (major/minor/diminished) can feel different depending on its scale-degree position. Tonal harmony is less about chord “types” and more about chord location in the key.

Building diatonic triads (and why Roman numerals matter)

A diatonic triad is a three-note chord built by stacking thirds using only notes from the key. AP Music Theory uses Roman numerals to label these chords; Roman numerals communicate function by showing which scale degree is the root.

In major keys, the diatonic triads are:

In minor keys, the picture changes because scale degree 7 is variable. In functional harmony, minor is typically treated with a raised leading tone (harmonic minor) whenever dominant function is needed.

A practical AP mindset for minor:

• Tonic-area chords often use key-signature (natural minor) forms (for example, i, iv, VI).
• Dominant-area chords typically use raised scale degree 7 (and sometimes raised 6 as well if melodic-minor behavior appears), giving you V (major) and vii° (diminished).

So in minor, you commonly encounter:

• i (minor) = tonic
• iv (minor) and ii° (diminished) = predominant options
• V (major) and vii° (diminished) = dominant (requires raised 7)
• VI (major) can behave like tonic-prolongation or as part of a predominant move depending on context

Tonic, predominant, and dominant function (the “jobs”)

Tonic function chords support rest, arrival, or extension of home.

• I (i) is the center of gravity.
• vi (VI) often feels like a “soft tonic” (in major it shares two notes with I).
• iii can also prolong tonic (shares two notes with I), though it’s less common.

Predominant function chords typically lead into dominant harmony; they feel like preparation.

• ii (ii° in minor)
• IV (iv in minor)

A helpful hearing cue is that predominants often contain scale degree 4 (fa) and/or 2 (re), which tend to move smoothly into dominant harmony.

Dominant function chords create the strongest pull to tonic because they contain tendency tones:

• Scale degree 7 (leading tone) wants to rise to 1.
• Scale degree 4 often wants to fall to 3, especially as part of V7.

Common dominants:

• V
• V7 (a seventh chord adds more pull)
• vii° (and vii°7)

In minor keys, dominant almost always uses raised scale degree 7. Without it, a minor v chord lacks strong dominant pull and is less typical in AP-style part-writing.

Harmonic progression and a “default” functional blueprint

A harmonic progression is a series of chords in a specific order, each related to the key. Progressions can be simple or complex. Common progressions you’ll see (especially across classical and jazz practice) include:

• I–IV–V
• ii–V–I

For AP-style tonal phrases, the single most useful functional arc is:

• Tonic → Predominant → Dominant → Tonic

A very common Roman numeral version in major is:

• I → IV (or ii) → V (or V7) → I

Not every phrase matches this exactly, but most tonal phrases are elaborations of this basic plan.

Inversions and function (same chord, different surface)

A chord’s inversion changes which chord member is in the bass. Inversions strongly affect voice leading and smoothness, but they usually do not change the chord’s basic function.

Triad identification by intervals above the bass:

• Root position: 5th above bass and 3rd above bass
• First inversion: 6th above bass and 3rd above bass
• Second inversion: 6th above bass and 4th above bass

Figured-bass labels in Roman numeral analysis:

In C major:

• I = C–E–G with C in the bass
• I6 = C–E–G with E in the bass
• I6/4 = C–E–G with G in the bass

“Harmony” vs. non-chord tones (don’t over-label)

When you label harmony, you’re identifying the underlying chord. But melodies often include non-chord tones (passing tones, neighbor tones, suspensions, etc.) that decorate the harmony without changing it.

A common mistake is to re-label a chord every time a melody note doesn’t fit. Instead, ask:

• Are most voices outlining a stable chord?
• Is the “odd” note stepwise and fleeting (suggesting a non-chord tone)?

This is especially important near cadences, where suspensions and accented passing tones intensify arrival while the underlying harmony may remain V or I.

Exam Focus

• Typical question patterns:
  • Identify or choose the most likely chord function (tonic/predominant/dominant) for a given Roman numeral in context.
  • Provide Roman numeral analysis of a short progression, including inversions.
  • Determine which chord best continues a progression based on functional expectations.
• Common mistakes:
  • Treating vi as “predominant” by default; in many contexts it prolongs tonic instead.
  • Forgetting that in minor, dominant function usually requires raised scale degree 7 (V and vii°).
  • Re-labeling harmony when the melody contains a non-chord tone.

Voice Leading Foundations (SATB): Motion, Spacing, and Resolutions

In AP Music Theory, harmony is often practiced through four-part writing in SATB texture (soprano, alto, tenor, bass). Voice leading is the art of arranging musical voices so chord-to-chord motion is smooth and logical. It’s essential in classical writing and also a core concept for understanding harmonic practice more broadly (including jazz-style progressions), because it explains why certain progressions feel inevitable and others feel awkward.

The goals of good voice leading

Good voice leading balances three priorities:

1. Smooth individual lines: favor stepwise motion, avoid awkward leaps, and keep each part within a reasonable range.
2. Clear harmony: chord members must be present in a way that defines the chord (especially the third).
3. Independence of voices: avoid voice-leading patterns that collapse the texture into parallel motion (especially perfect intervals).

Types of motion (how voices relate)

Motion describes how one voice (often the soprano/melody) moves in relation to another (often the bass):

• Contrary motion: voices move in opposite directions.
• Oblique motion: one voice stays on the same note while the other moves.
• Similar motion: voices move in the same direction but by different intervals.
• Parallel motion: voices move in the same direction by the same interval.

Contrary and oblique motion are especially useful for avoiding parallels and keeping the texture independent.

Outer voices (soprano and bass): special importance

The outer voices are the highest and lowest voices in a texture—usually the melody (soprano) and the bass line. Because listeners track these most easily, AP-style rules are especially strict here:

• Avoid large, awkward leaps between adjacent notes (especially in the soprano).
• Avoid crossing voices.
• Avoid parallel fifths and octaves.
• Avoid doubling the leading tone.

Spacing, ranges, voice order; open vs. closed position

In standard SATB writing:

• Keep soprano–alto and alto–tenor within an octave.
• Tenor–bass may exceed an octave.
• Avoid voice crossing (a lower voice above a higher one).
• Generally avoid voice overlap (a lower voice moving above where a higher voice just was), because it makes parts hard to follow.

Open vs. closed position refers to spacing within a chord:

• Open position: chord tones are spaced far apart.
• Closed position: chord tones are spaced close together.

Spacing affects clarity and balance. Avoid extreme gaps between adjacent upper voices, keep voices in comfortable ranges, and aim for a balanced texture so no single part dominates unless the musical context calls for it. Spacing can also contribute to a sense of tension or release.

Doubling rules (practical and stylistic)

In four-part writing, a triad has three chord members, so one must be doubled.

A reliable baseline:

• Typically double the root in root-position triads; this reinforces tonality and gives a strong foundation.

You will also encounter these common guidelines:

• Doubling the fifth can be acceptable and can add brightness/clarity in some contexts.
• Avoid doubling the third when possible, because it can sometimes create balance issues or emphasize tendency tones (this is a guideline, not an absolute rule).
• Use common sense and your ears: these rules are starting points. If a particular doubling produces cleaner voice leading and sounds correct, it may be the better choice.
• Consider the instrumentation in real-world arranging: different instruments have different strengths and colors, which can influence effective doubling.

Two critical AP-style warnings:

• Avoid doubling the leading tone (scale degree 7), because it strongly tends to resolve up to 1; doubling it often forces similar resolutions and creates voice-leading problems.
• In minor keys, be especially careful with doubled tendency tones (raised 7, and raised 6 when used).

Inversions affect doubling choices:

• In first inversion (6) triads, doubling the soprano or the bass can work; doubling the root is still often safe.
• In second inversion (6/4) triads, doubling is more constrained because many 6/4 chords are embellishing sonorities (not stable harmonies), and the wrong doubling can intensify parallels.

Tendency tones and their resolutions

A tendency tone is a scale degree with a strong, conventional resolution:

• 7 → 1 (leading tone to tonic)
• 4 → 3 (especially when 4 is part of V7)
• In many cadential melodic contexts, 2 → 1 in the soprano is also common

These resolutions are a big part of why dominant harmony sounds so directed.

Seventh chords and the chordal seventh

A chordal seventh is a seventh added to a triad, creating a four-note chord (a seventh chord). A chordal seventh can be added to major, minor, diminished, or augmented chords. In labeling, the seventh is commonly indicated with a 7 (for example, V7).

In common-practice voice leading, the chordal seventh typically resolves downward by step. Very often, that stepwise descent leads to the third of the next chord, which is one reason seventh chords so effectively intensify tension and then release. More broadly, seventh chords can be used to create tension and release, adding interest and complexity to the harmony.

Avoiding parallels and other interval issues

Parallel fifths and parallel octaves occur when two voices move in the same direction from one perfect fifth (or octave) to another perfect fifth (or octave). This weakens independence: two lines sound like one thickened line.

Also watch for:

• Parallel unisons (same problem of independence).
• Direct (hidden) fifths/octaves: two voices move in similar motion into a perfect fifth or octave and the upper voice leaps; this is especially exposed between soprano and bass.
• Augmented or diminished intervals in parallel: as a general warning, repeating unusual intervals in similar motion can sound stylistically awkward and may signal poor part-writing choices.

A note on perfect fourths: in AP chorale-style writing, the main “no-parallel” focus is perfect 5ths and 8ves (and unisons). Perfect fourths are context-dependent; they are not treated as universally forbidden in the same way, but you should still be cautious about exposed, bass-related fourth sonorities and about voice-leading that sounds hollow or overly parallel.

To fix parallels, common strategies include:

• Use contrary motion between bass and soprano.
• Choose a different inversion.
• Re-assign chord members among inner voices.

Common tones and efficient chord-to-chord motion

When moving between chords that share notes, keep common tones in the same voice whenever possible. This stabilizes the texture and reduces unnecessary movement.

Example idea (C major):

• I (C–E–G) to vi (A–C–E)
  • Common tones: C and E
  • Keep C and E where they are; move G to A (direction depends on voicing).

How function affects voice-leading choices

Functional progressions come with “default” voice-leading expectations:

• Predominant → Dominant often features scale degree 4 and 2 moving into chord members of V/V7.
• Dominant → Tonic typically includes leading tone resolution and (in V7) chordal seventh resolution.

Voice leading isn’t just avoiding errors; it’s how harmonic function becomes audible.

Worked voice-leading example (conceptual)

In C major, consider:

• I → ii6 → V7 → I

I (C–E–G) establishes stability. ii6 (D–F–A with F in the bass) is a predominant that often produces very smooth motion into V7 (G–B–D–F). Then I (C–E–G) resolves.

A strong method:

1. Keep common tones where possible.
2. Move other voices by step.
3. In V7 → I, resolve B up to C (leading tone) and F down to E (chordal seventh).

If you do those and check for parallels, you usually get a solid result.

Exam Focus

• Typical question patterns:
  • Part-writing tasks: realize a Roman numeral progression in SATB with correct voice leading.
  • Error-detection: identify parallel fifths/octaves, unresolved tendency tones, or spacing/overlap problems.
  • Multiple-choice listening/analysis: choose which bass line or soprano line best fits functional harmony.
• Common mistakes:
  • Doubling the leading tone (especially in vii° or V in minor).
  • Failing to resolve the chordal seventh downward in V7.
  • Creating parallel fifths/octaves by moving all voices in the same direction with the bass.

Cadences: Harmonic Punctuation and Closure

A cadence is the harmonic, melodic, and rhythmic conclusion to a phrase. If harmonic function is “grammar,” cadences are punctuation marks—comma, semicolon, period, or an ellipsis that implies more to come. Cadences also help establish the tonal center.

A useful rule of thumb is that phrase endings most commonly land on one of three harmonic goals: I (i) for closure, V for a question-like pause, or vi (VI) for deceptive continuation.

The essential idea: cadences are defined by function and arrival

Cadence type depends on:

• The harmonic progression (especially the final two chords)
• The melodic arrival (especially the soprano scale degree at the end)
• The sense of closure (finished vs. needing continuation)

Authentic cadences (PAC and IAC)

An authentic cadence features dominant resolving to tonic (V to I in major, V to i in minor).

Perfect Authentic Cadence (PAC)

A Perfect Authentic Cadence is the strongest closure.

AP criteria:

• V (or V7) → I (or i)
• Both chords in root position
• Soprano ends on scale degree 1 (the root of the tonic chord)

This creates maximum stability: the bass lands on tonic and the top voice lands on tonic.

Imperfect Authentic Cadence (IAC)

An Imperfect Authentic Cadence is still V → I (or V → i), but weaker.

Common reasons it’s imperfect:

• Inversion in V or I (for example, V6 or I6)
• Soprano ends on scale degree 3 or 5 (a chord member other than the tonic’s root)

Half cadence (HC)

A Half Cadence ends on dominant harmony (usually V). It feels like a question mark or comma.

• The chord before V can vary (I, ii, IV, even vi), as long as the phrase truly ends on V.
• The defining feature is the ending harmony.

Phrygian Half Cadence (PHC)

A Phrygian Half Cadence occurs in minor-key contexts (commonly associated with harmonic minor usage) and features a characteristic half-step descent in the bass into V.

• Dominant is preceded by iv6 (minor subdominant in first inversion).
• The descending bass line approaches the dominant scale degree from above by a half step.

Example in A minor: iv6 with F in the bass moving to V with E in the bass (F → E).

Deceptive cadence (DC)

A Deceptive Cadence happens when you strongly expect V to resolve to I, but it goes somewhere else—most commonly to vi in major or VI in minor.

Typical formulas:

• V → vi (major)
• V → VI (minor)

It works because vi shares two notes with I in major, so it sounds related to tonic but avoids full closure. In AP usage, “deceptive” usually implies this dominant-to-tonic-substitute move (most commonly vi/VI), not just any surprise chord.

Plagal cadence (PC)

A Plagal Cadence is IV → I (or iv → i in minor), often called the “Amen cadence.”

• It is generally weaker than authentic cadence because it lacks leading-tone drive.
• IV → I happens frequently without being a formal cadence; it counts as a cadence when it clearly closes a phrase/section.

Cadential 6/4 (a common cadential intensifier)

A cadential 6/4 is a specific use of a tonic 6/4 chord at a cadence. Even though it looks like I6/4, it typically functions as an embellishment of V.

Common pattern:

• I6/4 → V (or V7) → I

A common mistake is to treat cadential I6/4 as a tonic arrival. In cadential contexts, it is better heard as part of dominant function intensifying the pull to V.

How to identify cadence types step by step

1. Find the last strong harmonic goal of the phrase (often the last chord).
2. Look backward to the chord immediately before it.
3. Check the bass motion (root-position arrival is stronger).
4. Check the soprano scale degree at the end (especially PAC vs IAC).
5. Ask whether it feels finished (authentic/plagal) or needs continuation (half/deceptive).

Mini-examples (Roman numerals only)

In C major:

• PAC: V → I (soprano ends on 1; both root position)
• IAC: V6 → I, or V → I6, or V → I with soprano on 3 or 5
• HC: anything → V
• DC: V → vi
• PC: IV → I

In A minor (with raised 7 for dominant):

• PAC: V → i (E major to A minor)
• DC: V → VI (E major to F major)

Exam Focus

• Typical question patterns:
  • Identify cadence type at the end of a given phrase (aural or written).
  • Distinguish PAC vs IAC using inversion and soprano scale degree.
  • Choose which harmonic option creates a specified cadence (for example, “end with a half cadence”).
  • Identify a Phrygian half cadence by the iv6–V pattern and half-step descent into V in minor.
• Common mistakes:
  • Calling a cadence “PAC” when the soprano ends on 3 or 5 (that’s IAC).
  • Labeling something a half cadence just because V appears; for HC, the phrase must actually end on V.
  • Hearing I6/4 in a cadence as tonic function instead of a cadential 6/4 embellishing V.

Phrase Structure: How Harmony Shapes Musical Sentences

A phrase is a musical unit that sounds like a complete thought—often (but not always) ending with a cadence. Harmony is one of the main forces that makes a phrase feel like it has direction and an endpoint.

What makes something a phrase (not just a melody)

A phrase usually has:

• A clear beginning (often tonic stability)
• Motion and buildup (often predominant and dominant)
• A cadence that provides harmonic punctuation

Phrase boundaries are best located by cadential closure and functional motion, not just by counting measures.

Phrase length and harmonic rhythm

Harmonic rhythm is the rate at which chords change.

• A fast harmonic rhythm often creates tension and excitement.
• A slow harmonic rhythm often creates calm and stability.

Cadences often coincide with a slowing of harmonic rhythm near the end (the music “settles” into the cadence), while faster harmonic rhythm can appear mid-phrase to build momentum.

Antecedent and consequent phrases

A common pairing is antecedent–consequent (“question–answer”):

• Antecedent often ends with a weaker cadence (commonly HC).
• Consequent answers with a stronger cadence (often an authentic cadence).

Period vs. phrase group

A period is typically two related phrases (often melodically similar), where the first ends weaker and the second ends stronger.

Typical model:

• Antecedent: HC
• Consequent: PAC (or sometimes IAC)

Not every two-phrase unit is a period. If the phrases lack the expected parallelism or cadential hierarchy, they may form a phrase group instead.

Parallel vs. contrasting periods

• Parallel period: consequent begins like the antecedent.
• Contrasting period: consequent begins differently.

Harmony often supports this by keeping the opening functional plan similar, then diverging near the end so the consequent can deliver stronger closure.

How cadences define phrase endings (how to spot them)

In written analysis, phrase boundaries often align with:

• Long notes or rests in the melody
• A pause in rhythm
• Cadential bass motion (predominant → dominant; then dominant resolution or dominant ending)
• A clear cadential pattern like I6/4–V–I

In listening, you may hear:

• Tonic arrival after dominant (authentic cadence)
• Suspension on dominant (half cadence)
• A surprising continuation (deceptive cadence)

Worked phrase example (functional description)

Imagine an 8-measure melody in G major:

• Measures 1–4: starts on I, moves to ii or IV, ends on V (HC). This feels like a question.
• Measures 5–8: begins similarly (I again), moves through predominant to dominant, resolves V–I with soprano on scale degree 1 (PAC). This feels like an answer.

Phrase elision and deceptive extensions

Not all phrase endings are clean.

• Elision: the end of one phrase and the beginning of the next overlap (the cadence happens, but the next phrase begins immediately, sometimes on the same beat).
• Deceptive cadence extension: V goes to vi/VI, extending the phrase; the “real” cadence arrives later.

Exam Focus

• Typical question patterns:
  • Mark phrase boundaries and identify cadence types at each boundary.
  • Identify whether a pair of phrases forms a period and whether it is parallel or contrasting.
  • Given a melody and a partial harmonization, choose the cadence that best completes the phrase.
• Common mistakes:
  • Counting measures to find phrases while ignoring cadence evidence.
  • Calling any two phrases a “period” even when the cadences don’t create weak-then-strong closure.
  • Missing an elision and incorrectly placing the phrase boundary later.

Analyzing Harmonic Progressions in Phrases (Function + Cadence Together)

Analysis in AP Music Theory is not just labeling chords; it is explaining how harmony creates direction and closure across time. Strong analyses connect:

1. Local chord identity (Roman numerals and inversions)
2. Functional motion (tonic → predominant → dominant → tonic)
3. Phrase structure (cadences and their relative strength)

A step-by-step method for Roman numeral analysis in phrase contexts

1. Confirm the key (key signature, accidentals, and the final chord).
2. Identify cadences first (scan phrase endings for V–I, endings on V, or IV–I).
3. Work backward from cadences to find predominant harmonies.
4. Label each harmony with Roman numerals and inversions (use the bass note to determine inversion).
5. Check for non-chord tones so you don’t over-label.

This order gives you the big picture first, which makes individual chords easier to recognize.

Example 1: Functional analysis of a common phrase (C major)

A typical four-measure phrase ending with an authentic cadence:

• Measure 1: I (tonic)
• Measure 2: ii6 (predominant)
• Measure 3: V7 (dominant)
• Measure 4: I (tonic)

Tonic establishes key, predominant increases motion, V7 intensifies pull (leading tone + chordal seventh), and I resolves.

If the soprano ends on scale degree 1 and both final chords are root position, the cadence is a PAC. If soprano ends on 3, it is an IAC even if the harmony is V–I.

Example 2: Period-like structure (two phrases)

An 8-measure unit:

Phrase 1 (mm. 1–4):

• I → IV → V (ends on V)

Phrase 2 (mm. 5–8):

• I → ii6 → V7 → I (ends on I)

Interpretation:

• Phrase 1 ends with HC (question).
• Phrase 2 ends with authentic cadence (answer).

If both phrases start similarly, it is a parallel period; if the second begins differently, it is contrasting.

Example 3: Deceptive cadence extension

Near the end:

• ii6 → V → vi → ii6 → V7 → I

Functionally, ii6 → V sets up an authentic cadence expectation; V → vi interrupts closure (deceptive cadence); then the harmony “tries again” and finally lands on I.

How inversions support smooth bass lines

Inversions often exist to make the bass more stepwise or avoid awkward leaps.

• Predominants are frequently used in first inversion (ii6 is extremely common).
• Dominant is often root position at cadences to strengthen closure.

A useful mindset is that inversions help shape phrasing: root position at cadences feels grounded; inversions in the interior feel like motion.

Non-chord tones at cadences (don’t let them trick your analysis)

Cadences often include accented non-chord tones (like suspensions) to heighten arrival. If a note doesn’t belong to V7 but resolves correctly (often downward by step), it may be a suspension over dominant—not a new chord.

A common error is to label a new harmony for the suspension (for example, calling it ii) when the underlying harmony remains V.

Connecting harmonic analysis to soprano scale degrees

Cadence strength depends on more than the chord symbols:

• Ending on scale degree 1 strongly signals closure.
• Ending on 3 or 5 can feel stable but less final.
• Ending on 2 often wants to resolve to 1 (common near half-cadence contexts if the phrase continues).

When uncertain between PAC and IAC, check the soprano.

Exam Focus

• Typical question patterns:
  • Provide Roman numeral analysis with inversions for a short excerpt and label cadences.
  • Identify phrase structure (period/phrase group) using cadence types.
  • Aural analysis: choose which progression matches a heard cadence or phrase ending.
• Common mistakes:
  • Determining inversion from the soprano rather than the bass.
  • Missing the raised leading tone in minor and mislabeling V as v.
  • Treating cadences as “two-chord labels” without checking soprano scale degree and phrase-ending context.

Composing and Completing Progressions (Making Functional Harmony Sound Convincing)

AP Music Theory doesn’t only ask you to recognize harmony; it often asks you to supply it—especially in part-writing and free-response contexts. Convincing harmonization comes from planning function and cadence first, then letting voice-leading details support that plan.

Start with the cadence, then compose backward

When harmonizing a melody or filling in missing chords, plan the end first:

1. Decide the cadence type you need (PAC, HC, DC, etc.).
2. Place dominant harmony appropriately (often on the penultimate strong beat/measure).
3. Choose a predominant harmony that leads naturally into dominant.
4. Use tonic-area chords to start and to prolong where needed.

Cadences create the strongest constraints; once you know the destination, the path becomes clearer.

Choosing predominant chords: ii vs. IV (and why ii6 is a favorite)

Both ii and IV are predominant, but they behave differently:

• ii6 often allows very smooth stepwise motion into V (one reason it is so common in chorale-style writing).
• IV is common in root position, but you must watch for parallels into V if the bass moves IV–V and upper voices move similarly.

If you are unsure, ii6 is often a safe, stylistic predominant before V.

Using vi as tonic prolongation or deceptive goal

vi can do different jobs:

• Tonic prolongation: I → vi → I6 can keep you in tonic area without sounding static.
• Deceptive resolution: V → vi avoids expected closure.

Function is contextual; the same Roman numeral can behave differently depending on phrase position.

Making cadences sound strong (or intentionally weak)

To make a cadence stronger:

• Put V and I in root position.
• Put scale degree 1 in the soprano at the end (PAC).
• Use V7 for more drive and resolve its tendency tones correctly.
• Use cadential intensification like I6/4–V–I.

To make a cadence weaker:

• Use inversions (V6–I, or V–I6).
• End with soprano on 3 or 5 (IAC).
• End on V (HC).

Practical melody-harmonization cues

A good first question is: which diatonic chords contain the melody note?

Example in C major: melody note E could belong to I (C–E–G), iii (E–G–B), or vi (A–C–E).

Then narrow by function and phrase position:

• Early in a phrase, I or vi may be likely.
• Approaching a cadence, predominant (ii/IV) and dominant (V/V7) become more likely.

A common beginner mistake is choosing chords only because they “contain the note,” ignoring where the phrase is heading. That often produces a directionless harmonization.

Voice-leading triage: what to fix first

When checking your own part-writing, fix issues in this order:

1. Chord correctness (right notes for the intended Roman numeral)
2. Tendency-tone resolution (leading tone, chordal sevenths)
3. Parallels and direct fifths/octaves
4. Spacing, ranges, and doubling choices

This order helps prevent “surface fixes” (like rearranging inner voices) from introducing new parallel errors.

Tips for voice-leading free-response (FRQ) writing

• Start with a clear understanding of the chord progression and the key.
• Use common chord progressions and cadences to create familiarity and structure.
• Pay attention to the melody and ensure it flows smoothly from chord to chord.
• Use chordal sevenths to add interest and complexity, but do not overuse them or create awkward voice leading.

Exam Focus

• Typical question patterns:
  • Complete a progression to achieve a specified cadence (for example, “end with a PAC”).
  • Harmonize a short melody using functional harmony with correct cadences.
  • Revise a flawed harmonization by correcting cadential voice leading and avoiding parallels.
  • Use seventh chords appropriately to increase tension before resolution.
• Common mistakes:
  • Writing a V chord in minor without raising scale degree 7, weakening or breaking the cadence.
  • Ending a “PAC” with I6 or with soprano not on scale degree 1.
  • Forcing a chord choice because it matches the melody note even when it breaks functional motion toward the cadence.
  • Mishandling seventh-chord voice leading by failing to resolve the chordal seventh downward by step.