Unit 6: Indigenous African Art (1100–1980 CE)

Historical & Cultural Context

Overview of African Art

African art is not a monolithic genre but a diverse collection of creative traditions from a vast continent. While Western art often prioritizes art for art's sake (aesthetic contemplation), African art is primarily functional and active. Artworks act as agents of religion, social stability, political power, and historical record.

• Active Art: Objects are often meant to be performed, danced, touched, or ritually activated, not just viewed in glass cases.
• Interaction with the West: The curriculum covers 1100–1980 CE, encompassing the periods before, during, and after European colonization. The arrival of the Portuguese in the 15th century and the "Scramble for Africa" in the 19th century profoundly impacted material availability (e.g., getting brass for Benin plaques) and the displacement of artworks.
• Oral Tradition: Many cultures rely on oral histories rather than written texts; art objects function as mnemonic devices to preserve these histories.

Key Themes

1. Ancestors and Lineage: Venerating ancestors to ensure the community's protection and success.
2. Kingship and Power: Validating the authority of rulers through materials (gold, ivory, beads) and iconography.
3. Gender Roles: Specific delineation of male and female roles in society and ritual societies.
4. Duality: Balancing opposing forces (chaos/order, male/female, wild/domestic).

Materials, Processes, and Techniques

Common Materials

• Wood: The most common material due to abundance, though it decays rapidly (termites/rot), meaning most surviving wooden works are from the 19th/20th centuries.
• Metal: Bronze/Brass (associated with royalty/durability) and Iron (associated with war/tools).
• Earth: Mud-brick/Adobe (requires annual maintenance, communal activity).
• Trade Goods: Glass beads (from Europe), cowrie shells (currency), and fabrics.

The Lost-Wax Casting Process

A sophisticated technique used by the Benin (Nigeria) and Ashanti (Ghana) peoples to create hollow metal sculptures.

1. A clay core is shaped.
2. Wax is modeled over the core to create the detailed design.
3. More clay covers the wax, creating a mold.
4. The mold is heated; wax melts and drains out (is "lost").
5. Molten metal is poured into the void.
6. The mold is broken to reveal the unique sculpture.

Architecture and Monumental Structures

1. Great Zimbabwe

• Culture: Shona Peoples (Southeastern Zimbabwe).
• Date: c. 1000–1400 CE.
• Material: Coursed granite blocks (Ashlar masonry).

Form & Construction

• Ashlar Masonry: Stone fitted together without mortar.
• Batter: Walls slope inward toward the top for stability (up to 32 ft tall, 17 ft thick).
• Conical Tower: Modeled on a grain silo; represents the king's power to provide food.

Function & Context

• Royal Center: A trading hub connecting to the Indian Ocean trade route (evidence found: Chinese porcelain, Persian beads).
• Class Separation: The stone enclosure was likely for royalty; commoners lived in mud-thatched huts outside.
• Symbolism: The silo shape connects royal authority to harvest and prosperity.

2. Great Mosque of Djenné

• Culture: Djenné, Mali.
• Date: Founded c. 1200; Rebuilt 1906–1907.
• Material: Adobe (mud brick).

Form & Construction

• Torons: Wooden beams projecting from the walls. They serve a dual purpose: aesthetic texture and functional scaffolding for re-plastering.
• Verticality: Uses engaged columns (pilasters) to emphasize height.
• Roof: Ostrich eggs on top of pillars symbolize fertility and purity.

Function & Context

• Epicenter of Learning: Djenné was a center of commerce and Islamic learning.
• Crepissage: An annual community festival where the entire population helps replaster the mosque before the rainy season. This maintains the building and reinforces social cohesion.

Arts of Leadership and Court Life

3. Wall Plaque, from Oba’s Palace

• Culture: Edo peoples, Kingdom of Benin (Nigeria).
• Date: 16th Century.
• Material: Cast brass (using lost-wax method).

Form

• Hierarchic Scale: The Oba (king) is the largest figure; attendants are smaller.
• High Relief: Figures project strongly from the background.

Context

• Trade: Brass was obtained through trade with the Portuguese (often exchanged for slaves, ivory, or pepper). The rosettes on the plaque likely derive from Christian crosses introduced by Europeans.
• British Punitive Expedition (1897): The British looted the Benin palace, taking 900+ plaques. This creates a contemporary debate about repatriation.

4. Sika dwa kofi (Golden Stool)

• Culture: Ashanti peoples (South Central Ghana).
• Date: c. 1700.
• Material: Gold over wood.

Function & Belief

• Soul of the Nation: Contains the sunsum (soul) of the Ashanti people. It is more important than the king himself.
• Sacred Object: It is never sat upon. It sits on its own chair (hwedom) and is turned on its side to prevent unwanted spirits from sitting on it.

Context

• War of the Golden Stool (1900): A British governor demanded to sit on the stool, sparking a war lead by the Queen Mother Yaa Asantewaa. The Ashanti hid the stool to protect it.

5. Ndop (Portrait Figure)

• Culture: Kuba peoples (DRC).
• Date: c. 1760–1780.
• Material: Wood.

Form

• Idealized: Not a realistic portrait; portrays the king at the prime of life with a calm, composed expression (coolness = wisdom).
• Ibol: A personal emblem carved at the base (a severed hand for King Mishe miShyaang maMbul) identifies the specific ruler.
• 1:3 Proportion: The head is one-third the size of the body, emphasizing intelligence.

6. Veranda Post of Enthroned King and Senior Wife (Opo Ogoga)

• Artist: Olowe of Ise (One of the newly identified artists in African history).
• Culture: Yoruba peoples (Nigeria).
• Date: c. 1910–1914.
• Material: Wood and pigment.

Form & Content

• Structural: Originally a post for a palace porch.
• Gender Dynamics: The Senior Wife stands tall behind the seated king. Her size indicates her importance: she crowns the king and protects him (political power relies on spiritual support of women).
• Style: Elongated forms, angular negative space, and textured surfaces typical of Olowe of Ise.

Spiritual Forces & Ritual Objects

7. Power Figure (Nkisi n’kondi)

• Culture: Kongo peoples (DRC).
• Date: Late 19th Century.
• Material: Wood and metal.

Function

• Judicial/Healing: Used to resolve disputes, seal contracts, or cure illnesses.
• Activation: A nganga (spiritual healer) inserts bilongo (medicinal ingredients/sacred matter) into the belly cavity (mooyo), sealed by glass or a mirror.
• Nails/Blades: Each piece of metal driven into the figure represents a request, a vow, or a sealed agreement. The violence of driving the nail wakes the spirit to action.

8. Ikenga (Shrine Figure)

• Culture: Igbo peoples (Nigeria).
• Material: Wood.

Concept

• "Strong Right Arm": Honors the power of the right hand (the hand that holds the sword/tool). It symbolizes individual achievement and masculine power.
• Personal God (Chi): Every successful man maintains an Ikenga. It is a personal object, not communal.
• Horns: Symbolize intent and determination (like a ram).

9. Reliquary Figure (Byeri)

• Culture: Fang peoples (Cameroon).
• Material: Wood.

Function & Context

• Guardian: Placed on top of a bark basket containing the bones of ancestors.
• Nomadic Lifestyle: The Fang were migratory; they needed portable reliquaries rather than permanent graveyards.
• Duality: The figure balances opposing traits: infant-like head (vitality) with muscular body (power), calm expression (death) with tense pose (life).

10. Lukasa (Memory Board)

• Culture: Luba peoples (Mbudye Society, DRC).
• Material: Wood, beads, metal.

Function

• Mnemonic Device: It is not "read" like a book but "touched" to recall history. Only elite members of the Mbudye society can interpret it.
• Mapping: Beads represent kings, migrations, and genealogies. The hourglass shape fits directly in the hand.

Masquerade and Gender Roles

11. Female (Pwo) Mask

• Culture: Chokwe peoples (DRC).
• Material: Wood, fiber, pigment.

Context

• Matrilineal Society: ancestry is traced through mothers. This mask honors founding female ancestors.
• Performance: Worn by men dressed as women to honor female beauty and fertility. The dancer moves gracefully.
• Visuals: Closed eyes (introspection/respect), white clay (spiritual realm/afterlife).

12. Bundu Mask

• Culture: Sande Society, Mende peoples (Sierra Leone/Liberia).
• Material: Wood, cloth, fiber.

Unique Significance

• FEMALE MASKERS: This is the only African masquerade tradition where women wear the masks.

Symbolism

• Chrysalis: The neck rolls mimic a butterfly chrysalis, symbolizing a young girl's transformation into a woman.
• Ideal Beauty: Small mouth (doesn't gossip), small ears (doesn't listen to gossip), high forehead (wisdom/good luck), shiny black skin (health/water spirit Sowei).

13. Portrait Mask (Mblo)

• Culture: Baule peoples (Côte d’Ivoire).
• Material: Wood and pigment.

Function

• Secular (Non-Religious): Unlike most masks, this is for entertainment and social honoring, not connecting with spirits.
• Double: The mask functions as an artistic double of a specific living person (e.g., Moya Yanso) used in dances to honor them.

14. Aka Elephant Mask

• Culture: Bamileke (Cameroon).
• Material: Wood, woven raffia, cloth, beads.

Form & Function

• Material Wealth: Completely covered in imported beads, showcasing the immense wealth of the King (Fon).
• Iconography: The elephant and the leopard are the king's alter egos (symbols of power). The geometric triangles often represent leopard spots.
• Performance: Worn by the Kuosi society (warriors/court officials) in energetic dances.

Comparison Table: Religious vs. Secular Objects

Common Mistakes & Pitfalls

1. "Primitive" Art: Never use this term. It is derogatory and inaccurate. African art is highly sophisticated, stylized, and symbolic.
2. Assuming all masks are for men: While most are, the Bundu mask (Mende people) is exclusively worn by women.
3. Confusing "Great Zimbabwe" with a single building: It is a massive complex of stone ruins, not just one tower.
4. Static Viewing: Forgetting that these objects (especially masks and the Nkisi) are incomplete without the costume, dance, music, or ritual action associated with them.
5. Benin vs. Great Zimbabwe Materials: Benin is famous for Brass (metal); Great Zimbabwe is famous for Granite (stone).
6. Olowe of Ise: Students often forget that African art does have individual artists. Olowe of Ise recorded his name and had a distinct style.