The First World War: European Civilization in Crisis, 1914–1918

• Europe had risen to prominence on the world scene since 1500, thanks to its expanding military might and the wonders of the Scientific and Industrial Revolutions. By 1900, Europeans, or those of European descent, had essentially consolidated dominance over the world's other peoples, whether through official empires, informal influence, or sheer numbers.

An Accident Waiting to Happen

• The modernization of Europe and its worldwide dominance were not accompanied by a rising unity or stability among its peoples, quite the contrary. The most visible schism was between competing nations, which has always been a feature of European politics.

• The heir to the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, was murdered on June 28, 1914, by a Serbian nationalist. To the rulers of Austria-Hungary, the surging nationalism of Serbian Slavs was a mortal threat to the cohesion of their fragile multinational empire, which included other Slavic peoples as well.

• The start of that war was an accident in the sense that none of the great powers planned or foresaw the archduke's assassination, nor did they seek a long-term struggle, but Europe's strict alliance structure rendered it vulnerable to such an occurrence.

• Industrialized militarism also had a role in the conflict. Military officers had long enjoyed considerable social status as a result of Europe's armed rivalries, and most heads of state donned uniforms in public.

• The scope and conduct of the conflict were also affected by Europe's imperial reach throughout the world. It poured hundreds of thousands of colonial troops and workers into the war effort, with personnel from Africa, India, China, Southeast Asia, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and South Africa taking part.

The Fascist Alternative in Europe

• Between 1919 and 1945, fascism, a new political philosophy, gained traction across most of Europe. On a philosophical level, fascism was fiercely nationalist, aiming to revive and cleanse the nation, as well as organize its people for some noble purpose. Its spokespeople promoted violence against adversaries as a society-renewing force, praising action above thought.

• Angry individuals from many walks of life were drawn to such notions. The number of such persons increased dramatically as a result of the destruction that followed the First World War.

• Many Western European nations, including France, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands, saw small fascist movements emerge, although they had little political influence. In Austria, Hungary, and Romania, more serious movements arose.

• Italy was the first country to develop a fascist alternative. That country had only just been a united state in 1870 and had yet to create a modern, democratic society. Conservative landowners still controlled most of the countryside in the early twentieth century.

• Benito Mussolini (1883–1945), a charismatic orator and former journalist with a socialist background, stepped into this scene. Mussolini stormed to power in 1922 with the assistance of a private army of disillusioned veterans and jobless men known as the Black Shirts, promising an alternative to both communism and ineffective democratic governance.

Japanese Authoritarianism

• Japan's modern history resembled those of Italy and Germany in many respects. All three were newcomers to great power status, with Japan being the only Asian member of the club of industrializing and empire-building powers in the late nineteenth century.

• Despite these broad parallels, Japan's history throughout the first half of the twentieth century was unmistakably different. In contrast to Italy and Germany, Japan had a minor role in World War I and achieved significant economic development while the rest of the industrialized world was consumed by the battle.

• Japan appeared to be heading toward more democratic politics and Western cultural norms in the 1920s. In 1925, universal male suffrage was obtained; the country was ruled by ministries led by major party leaders rather than bureaucrats or imperial favorites, and a two-party system began to form.

• The accumulating tensions of Japan's modernizing and industrializing processes found expression in this atmosphere. In 1918, “rice riots” drew over a million people onto the streets of metropolitan Japan to protest the growing price of that basic food.